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Sociological Research Methods 1. The Research Process:
Knowledge Organiser Strip The research process in sociology involved
In this section of the course, we assess the several steps or stages. In broad terms, these
are:
methods Sociologists use to research and
understand society. A key part of
Aim - An aim is something that the researcher
sociologist’s work involves carrying out
research in order to collect data wants to investigate or find out. It can be a
(information) to provide them with general or specific idea, but this is the purpose
evidence to help explain the social world of the research.
& to contribute to our knowledge of Hypothesis - This is an idea which a researcher
modern society. Research findings also guesses might be true, but has not yet been
provide important information for policy tested against the evidence.
makers, government & local authorities. Review Existing Literature - Before you carry
out research you need to look at what has been
Contents: researched in the area before.
1. The Research Process Plan a Research Method - Once you have
2. Primary-Secondary Methods established what you are trying to find out, you
3. Quantitative-Qualitative choose which research method you will use.
4. Evaluating Research Sampling - A sample is made up of your
5. Sampling Methods research participant (people you are studying).
6. Questionnaires It is a smaller representative group drawn from
7. Interviews the population you want to study.
8. Observations
9. Longitudinal Studies Pilot Study- This is a small-scale practice of
10.Ethnography your research This is carried out before the
11.Official Statistics main body of research to check for initial
12.Content Analysis patterns, issues with questions, practical
13.Practical, Ethical and Theoretical problems etc.
Issues Carry out Research - Here you need to look at
14.Social Policy your initial research plan and adjust it based
on the findings of your pilot study. Then you
NOTE – Methods is embedded carry out your research on your sample.
throughout Gather Results - Depending on the research
- Use this to supplement your method chosen, the way you gather your results
revision, not replace it. will vary.
Analysis - This is the part where you try to
make sociological statements from your
findings. Here you link what you have found
with ideas in society.
Evaluation - Before you publish your work it is
important you evaluate what you have done.
You consider the strengths of your research and
the method you use. However, you also
consider the weaknesses.
Publish - The researcher now decides how to
publish the results. This can be in many forms:
book, magazine, T.V show etc
2. Primary-Secondary – 3. 4. Evaluating Research
Quantitative-Qualitative Whenever Sociologists conduct or look at
research they evaluate it. They want to look
Another influence on a researcher’s choice of at the advantages and disadvantages of the
method is the type of data they want to
gather. Data is the information collected by research and data.
sociologists when they research society and it
can be divided into the following types: Sociologists do this by assessing the:
Primary data: This is information that • Reliability
researchers have gathered themselves. • Validity
E.g. questionnaires, interviews, observations. • Generalisability
• Representativeness
Secondary data: This is information that has • Ethics
been collected by
somebody else & then used by the Reliability - means the research should be
researcher. E.g. official statistics, historical able to be repeated in a different time and
documents & diaries. place and similar results will be gained.
Quantitative-Qualitative Validity - is concerned with whether the
When a researcher collects data it can also research has uncovered truth about social life.
be divided into quantitative data and
qualitative data. Generalisability - If the research can be
generalised (applied) to all people who are
Quantitative data is numerical, often similar to the sample, it is considered
presented as numbers generalisable.
shown in statistics, in graphs, bar charts, etc.
Qualitative data is in-depth material, usually Representativeness - How much does a study
descriptive and presented in a written form. or a sample represent the wider population.
Positivism-Interpretivism Ethics – What is right or wrong in Sociological
Research:
Positivism is based on the idea that the only Confidentiality is the need for researchers not
way to obtain knowledge about the world is to publish the personal details of respondents
through scientific methods. Positivist without their consent
sociologists focus on behaviour that can be
observed and measured rather than on Anonymity is the right of individuals
people’s feelings or emotions. They prefer participating in research to not be required
quantitative research methods such as large- to provide their name or personal details or,
scale surveys & prefer to describe society in if they do give this information, it will not
statistical terms. appear in any reports arising from the
research
Interpretivist - sociologists argue that the
subject matter of sociology – people – is Participants should always give their
completely different from that of the natural informed consent to the research being
sciences. People do not behave like objects conducted so that no deception occurs.
or animals. Interpretivist sociologists prefer
qualitative methods such as in-depth Protection from harm is the belief that
interviews and participant observation that nobody should be put in a position where
collect rich, detailed accounts rather than they could come to any emotional or physical
statistics. harm. People should never be made to feel
uncomfortable, embarrassed or threatened &
they should have the right to withdraw from
the research at any point.
5. Sampling Methods 6. Questionnaires
When you do research, it would be difficult A questionnaire is a list of written questions
or impossible to ask questions to everybody which are completed by a large number of
in the group you are studying as it would people called respondents. They are normally
take too long and be too expensive. For handed out or posted out for people to self
example, if you are studying whether ‘girls complete, but occasionally the questions are
do more work around the house than boys’, read out to respondents instead. There are two
you cannot ask every boy and girl so you main types of questions that can be used in a
only ask a sample of the group. questionnaire and most questionnaires will
include examples of both.
Sampling Frame: this is the list of people
from which you take your sample, e.g. school 1. Closed questions are often fixed choice and
registers involve tick box answers. The respondent might
Sampling Methods include: be presented
2. Open questions gather more in-depth
Probability Sampling – Anyone in the answers from respondents using words such as
population can be selected using a sampling ‘why’.
frame
There are three main types of questionnaires:
Simple-Random Sampling - To be truly 1. Online
random, everyone in the Population being 2. Surveys
studied must stand an equal chance of being 3. Postal
selected.
Systematic Random Sampling - This is when
you have a system for choosing your sample, The advantages and disadvantages of
th
such as picking every 5 name on the school questionnaires are:
registers. It can be quick to organise, but it is
not representative as you may end up with Advantages Disadvantages
more of one type of person than another.
• Questionnaires • Low response
Stratified Random Sampling - This sample is can be more rates can distort
divided up into groups to accurately represent accessible for the data
the people being studied, e.g. you might have respondents ; its • Pre-coded
50% boys and 50% girls, 20% ethnic minority.
easier to find questions can be
You could also divide the group by age and by
time for an online biased
where they live. interview than • Questionnaires
Non-Probability Sampling – Samples that are face to face provide little
selected on purpose by the researcher. This is interview opportunity for
used when a sampling frame is unavailable • Responses to the researcher to
Snowball Sampling – This is where a member questionnaires gauge the
can generally be truthfulness
of your sampling group introduces you to relatively easy to • Questionnaires
another participant and helps you recruit quantify generally limit the
further participants.
• Questionnaires possible
Quota Sampling - Often used in market are generally responses that a
research, this is when respondents are selected most cost- respondent can
because they represent certain groups in the effective to give
total population (e.g. due to their age, gender, administer
marital status, etc.).
Purposive Sampling - This is selecting a
sample according to a known characteristic
(being a headteacher or being homeless)
7. Interviews 8. Observations
These interviews are unstructured and This can be done overtly or covertly. Overt
therefore each one is unique. The researcher means that the researcher explains his aims and
has an idea of the topic they want to discuss intentions to the group they are observing.
but they do not have set questions to follow. Covert means that that the researcher is
They allow the interview to flow. This working under cover.
produces qualitative data.
A semi- structured interview is a mix of the In a participant observation the researcher joins
two. The research has a guide of questions in with the group.
but allows the participant to speak freely.
Advantages of Participant Observation
Advantages of Structured Interviews It allows the observer to study the group
in their everyday setting.
• Questions are standardised so they can
Studies tend to take place over a period
be compared.
of time so the researcher can build a
• They can be easily replicated to check for
bond with the participants.
reliability.
By participating in activities the
• Interviewers are trained and familiar with
researcher can see things from the
the interview schedule so they can help
the respondents with any group’s perspective and develop a
misunderstandings. deeper understanding.
Disadvantages of Structured Interviews Disadvantages of Participant
Observation
• The interviewer might make some people
• It may be difficult for the researcher to gain
feel uncomfortable about telling the truth.
• The interviewer can also influence answers entry to the group and for the group to trust
them.
by their body language.
• The age, gender and ethnicity of the • Taking notes and recording activities as they
happen can be challenging especially if the
interviewer can also influence the research is covert.
respondent’s answer. This is called the
interviewer bias. • The research is time consuming and
therefore expensive.
• The observer effect – the presence of the
observer can cause the group to act
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews differently.
• They are much more flexible so any In non-participant observation the researcher
misunderstandings can be discussed. sits back from the group and observes without
• Researchers can explore how interviewees
joining in.
understand their own experiences and
behaviour so they can collect detailed Advantages of Non-participant Observation
data
• Researchers are less likely to get drawn
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews into the group’s activities.
• They can remain objective as they are less
• In depth interviews are time consuming likely to let their opinions be influenced by
and expensive. the group.
• It requires the researcher to have skills in
order to encourage the participant to Disadvantages of Non-participant
open up. Observation
• The interviewer could ask leading • It is more difficult to see the world through
questions and influence the responses of
the eyes of group members if they do not
the participants.
participate in their activities.
• The observer effect may change the
behaviour of the participants as they are
aware of being watched.
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