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the behavior analyst 1996 19 35 47 no 1 spring distinguishing between applied research and practice james m johnston auburn university behavior analytic research is often viewed along a basic ...

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                    The Behavior Analyst                    1996, 19, 35-47                          No. 1 (Spring)
                     Distinguishing Between Applied Research and Practice
                                                       James M. Johnston
                                                        Auburn University
                    Behavior-analytic research is often viewed along a basic-applied continuum of research goals and
                    methods. The applied portion of this continuum has evolved in ways that combine applied research
                    and service delivery. Although these two facets of applied behavior analysis should be closely
                    related, more clearly distinguishing between them, particularly in how we conceptualize and conduct
                    applied research, may enhance the continuing development of each. This differentiation may im-
                    prove the recruitment and training of graduate students.          analysis, graduate training
                      Key words: basic research, applied research, applied behavior
                    Evolution ofApplied Behavior                       Experimental Analysis of Behavior,
                   Analysis                                            which had been established in 1957 to
                       Applied behavior analysis was for-              publish the Journal of the Experimen-
                    malized in the 1960s with the efforts              tal Analysis of Behavior (JEAB). The
                    of a relatively small number of re-                definition of the new specialty was de-
                    searchers to determine if the basic prin-          scribed in a seminal article in the first
                    ciples of operant conditioning could be            issue, "Some Current Dimensions of
                    used to solve behavioral problems in               Applied Behavior Analysis" by Baer,
                    everyday situations. Although these at-            Wolf, and Risley (1968). Its placement
                    tempts were practical in focus, the                in the premier issue, the authors' rep-
                    style of analysis was often experimen-             utations, and the influence of their ac-
                    tal, perhaps in part because many of               ademic department at the University of
                    the researchers were experienced in ba-            Kansas insured the article substantial
                    sic animal research. Early reports of              and enduring impact (it has been cer-
                    this work were scattered among pro-                tified as a citation classic by the Social
                    fessional journals in clinical psycholo-           Science Citation Index).                  terms
                    gy, psychiatry, and child development.                The article defined a set of
                    However, edited volumes by Krasner                 germane to the conception of applied
                    and Ullman (1965), Ullman and Kras-                behavior analysis. The definition dif-
                    ner (1965), Ulrich, Stachnik, and Ma-              ferentiated the new journal from its
                    bry (1966), and Neuringer and Michael              older sister publication, JEAB. What
                    (1970) helped to identify and encour-              emerged was a definition of applied
                    age the nascent discipline.                        behavior analysis as a particular style
                       If there was an official announce-              of analysis, differing in certain ways
                    ment of the birth of applied behavior              from the style of analysis practiced in
                    analysis, it was the publication in 1968           animal laboratories. Baer et al. dis-
                    of the Journal of Applied Behavior                 cussed the definition of seven terms:
                   Analysis (JABA) by the Society for the              The evaluation of a study which purports to be
                                                                       an applied behavior analysis is somewhat dif-
                                                                       ferent than the evaluation of a similar laboratory
                      Portions of this paper are based on presenta-    analysis. Obviously, the study must be applied,
                    tions at the 1993 meeting of the Association for   behavioral, and analytic; in addition, it should
                   Behavior Analysis (Johnston, 1993a, 1993b). I       be technological, conceptually systematic, and
                    would like to thank Bill Hopkins and Hank Pen-     effective, and it should display some generality.
                   nypacker for comments on an earlier draft of this   These terms are explored below and compared
                   manuscript, to Janet Ellis for her encourage-       to the criteria often stated for the evaluation of
                   ment, and to the reviewers and the editor for       behavioral research which, though analytic, is
                   their considerable guidance.                        not applied. (1968, p. 92)
                      Correspondence should be addressed to J. M.      The authors approached the discussion
                   Johnston, Department of Psychology, Auburn          in terms of the challenge of evaluating
                   University, Auburn, Alabama 36849.
                                                                    35
               36                            JAMES M. JOHNSTON
               whether a candidate study would qual-        many cases, the pervasiveness of this
               ify as an applied behavior analysis, es-     tendency suggests a narrower view of
               pecially in contrast to a nonapplied an-     research interests and methodological
               alytical effort. In considering the defin-   options than may be necessary. The
               ing features of an applied behavior-an-      priority of the applied context may
               alytic  study, the paper conveyed a          therefore discourage studies using sub-
               certain model of applied behavior anal-      jects not indigenous to the applied set-
               ysis as a field of research.                 ting, target behavior selected for ex-
                 Over the ensuing years, there have         perimental rather than applied purpos-
               been many assessments of the evolu-          es, or analogue settings that offer a
               tion of applied behavior-analytic re-        higher degree of control than might
               search as represented by JABA and oth-       otherwise be available.
               er applied behavioral journals (Hayes,          Furthermore, the overriding criterion
               Rincover, & Solnick, 1980). For ex-          for the effectiveness or success of ap-
               ample, some have noted that the goal         plied research often seems to be the ex-
               of much applied behavioral research          tent to which the results ameliorate the
               seems to be to demonstrate a new tech-       presenting problem. Obtaining a large
               nique or a new application of an exist-      effect seems important (Baer, 1977;
               ing technique (Birnbrauer, 1979; Hayes       Parsonson & Baer, 1986). This can
               et al., 1980). Studies designed primar-      mean that studies reporting clear but
               ily to analyze an intervention proce-        modest effects are less likely to be
               dure or treatment effect or to replicate     published, even though such effects
               a prior study are less common (Hayes         may be important in understanding a
               et al., 1980) and seem more likely to        certain type of behavior. A desire for
               be rejected or given secondary status        large effects can also discourage ef-
               by being categorized as a report instead     forts to establish good control over ex-
               of an article (Birnbrauer, 1979).            traneous variables and attempts to con-
                 In pursuit of the interest in demon-       duct analytical studies that examine the
               strating a practical capability, an over-    contributions of component variables
              riding consideration observed in ap-          whose separate effects might be rela-
              plied journals is delivering a behavior-      tively small.
              change service that can solve an ap-            Finally, some have expressed con-
              plied problem, not just in general but        cern that the relation of intervention
              typically   in  the  immediate circum-        procedures to underlying behavioral
              stance presented by each study. Dem-          principles is sometimes made on a
              onstrating a capability to solve a prob-      nominal basis guided by topographical
              lem sometimes takes precedence over           similarities (Birnbrauer, 1979; Hayes et
              more experimental objectives such as          al., 1980; Michael, 1980). That is, pro-
              learning about the etiology of the be-        cedures may sometimes be described
              havior, elucidating sources of control,       as embodying certain basic principles
              or understanding the contribution of          of conditioning because the operations
              component variables (Birnbrauer, 1979;        take the same form as the referenced
              Deitz, 1982; Hayes et al., 1980; Mi-          principles.
              chael, 1980; Pierce & Epling, 1980).            Whether these features are problem-
                 The applied context seems to domi-         atic may depend on one's conception
              nate not only the research agenda but         of what applied behavior-analytic re-
              often how it is pursued. Research             search literature should look like (e.g.,
              methods are sometimes subservient to          see Baer, 1981). However, it may be
              the project's compatibility with the de-      important to consider how they influ-
              mands of the applied situation. Thus,         ence the pursuit of still other charac-
              studies typically use subjects, behavior,     teristics of the discipline. For example,
              and settings presented by the applied        there are a number of possible costs of
              problem (Hayes et al., 1980). Although       emphasizing the demonstration of new
              such decisions may be appropriate in         techniques or applications. These in-
                                          APPLIED RESEARCH AND PRACTICE                                          37
                   clude a failure to develop an adequate            whose origins are not limited to the
                   understanding of the etiology and                 traditions of JABA. Nevertheless, it
                   maintenance of important behavior, a              may be argued that to the degree that
                   shortage of analyses describing how               the problematic characteristics de-
                   complex procedures actually work (or              scribed above are present, they limit
                   why they do not), and the lack of a               the effectiveness of the literature in ex-
                   thematic style in the literature. Al-             plaining human behavior and offering
                   though there may be large areas of re-            a consistently effective technology for
                   search that address a certain problem             ameliorating problems.
                   or method, the studies collectively may              Given that these concerns have been
                   fall short of providing a complete and            discussed by various authors over the
                   integrated picture of the nature of the           past two decades, it is reasonable to
                   problem or the mechanisms of its so-              wonder about the influences that main-
                   lution. These tendencies have been ob-            tain some of the applied research prac-
                   served in the applied literature (Birn-           tices that might be considered prob-
                   brauer, 1979; Deitz, 1982; Hayes et al.,          lematic. Although early guidance and
                   1980; Michael, 1980).                             exemplars may have played some role,
                      Giving the applied priority of con-            they cannot be held responsible for so
                   text over research methods can also be            much behavior over such a long peri-
                   costly. Measurement procedures some-              od. Speculation about the contingen-
                   times seem to accommodate the con-                cies at work might start with the rein-
                   straints often associated with applied            forcers gained by helping in a direct
                   circumstances, such as limitations on             and immediate way those serving as
                   observing target behavior. One result is          subjects in applied research. Many who
                   the frequent use of problematic mea-              conduct applied research probably
                   surement procedures such as interval              chose careers focusing on applied is-
                   recording (Kelly, 1977). (A number of             sues because they enjoy working with
                   studies have emphasized the shortcom-             certain populations or in certain set-
                   ings of interval recording; e.g., see             tings. Indeed, many who conduct ap-
                   Powell, Martindale, & Kulp, 1975;                 plied research are employed in service
                   Powell & Rockinson, 1978; Repp,                   settings and are therefore likely to be
                   Roberts, Slack, Repp, & Berkler,                  greatly influenced by the service con-
                   1976.) Compromises in experimental                tingencies of such settings. Conceptu-
                   control and design may be settled in              alizing a study that requires a compar-
                   favor of the dictates of the applied sit-         atively contrived setting or nonindi-
                   uation. For instance, the modal number            genous subjects is probably less likely
                   of days in baseline phases in JABA ar-            for such individuals than a study
                   ticles  from 1968 through 1976 has                whose objectives include ameliorating
                   been reported to be between 3 and 4               a presenting problem.
                   (Huitema, 1986), too brief to achieve                More broadly, conducting research
                   the objectives of the steady-state strat-         aimed at creating effects of obvious
                   egy, which is at the heart of within-             practical value is likely to contact so-
                   subject comparisons.                              cietally mediated reinforcers beyond
                      The above assessments and concerns             the research setting. Proposing to have
                   suffer the inevitable constraints of              developed a solution for a behavioral
                   summarizing broad areas of research               problem often leads to professionally
                   and may be countered with notable ex-             and personally powerful reinforcers.
                   ceptions. There is no attempt here to             Although conducting a component
                   provide a comprehensive review of the             analysis as part of a long-term research
                   characteristics of the applied behavior-         program may augment a procedure's
                   al literature, the overall quality of the        eventual effectiveness, publishing a
                   literature as a research enterprise, or           study that shows that it is possible to
                   the value of its service achievements.           ameliorate a behavioral problem, par-
                   Furthermore, this is a diverse literature        ticularly if an effective procedure has
               38                            JAMES M. JOHNSTON
               not been previously published, is likely     may even burden service delivery with
               to be especially reinforcing.                unnecessary research obligations. The
                  Some features of applied research         result may be areas or types of applied
               literature may result from convenience       research that are deficient or even ab-
               compared to apparent alternatives. For       sent.
               example, brief phases are generally             Some of the missing research agen-
               less troublesome than long ones. Sim-        da might be addressed by expanded ba-
               ilarly, it is easier to tolerate excessive   sic research interests. There has been
               variability in the hope that large effects   increased attention in the basic re-
               will make findings clear than to search      search literature over the last couple of
               out the sources of variability and con-      decades to questions that specifically
               trol them, especially when there are         concern human behavior (Buskist &
               barriers to modifying applied settings       Miller, 1982; Hyten & Reilly, 1992;
               for experimental purposes. The famil-        Johnston, 1983). Some of these re-
               iarity of certain practices such as inter-   search themes have not been well in-
               val recording may also prompt deci-          tegrated with nonhuman research (Per-
               sions to use them in spite of docu-          one, 1985a), and some topics have not
               mented weaknesses. When convenience          realized the potential that might be an-
               and familiarity are not subservient to       ticipated. For instance, attention to so-
               the effects of thorough research train-      cial phenomena (e.g., Hake & Olivera,
               ing in graduate school, the many              1978) has yet to blossom into an iden-
               choices involved in conceptualizing          tifiable and multifaceted area of basic
               and conducting a study may not always        research (Cherek, 1995; Schmitt, 1995;
               lead to analytical clarity and strength.     Sherburne & Buskist, 1995). However,
               Under such conditions, decisions about       some areas are showing steady growth
               the research features of applied studies     and integration. Experimental interest
               (e.g., measurement procedures, exper-        in verbal behavior has increased con-
               imental design and control) may some-        siderably (reflected by the evolution of
               times yield to practical limitations and     The Analysis of Verbal Behavior from
               service-oriented emphases imposed by         newsletter to journal status), and the
               some applied settings.                       burgeoning stimulus equivalence liter-
                      APPLIED                               ature (see Sidman, 1994) seems to be
                                   RESEARCH                 realizing its potential to be an integral
                        VERSUS SERVICE                      part of the basic literature while ex-
               Consequences For Applied Research            tending to a wide range of basic and
                  This                                      applied research issues.
                       brief summary of the evolution          What remains underdeveloped in be-
               of applied behavior-analytic research        havior-analytic research is what in oth-
               and some of its characteristics suggests     er natural sciences is categorized as ap-
               that it has operated under certain con-      plied science. Applied science may be
               straints, whether imposed by early           defined as experimental research that is
               traditions or by the contingencies un-       connected to basic research through its
               der which applied researchers work.          experimental style and a basis in fun-
               Applied behavior analysis evolved as a       damental principles, directly driven by
               blend of applied research and service        applied issues and problems, but not
               delivery. This amalgam may be useful         compromised by the practical limita-
               in many instances, especially when the       tions or the immediate service interests
               objective of a project is to ameliorate      of applied settings. The traditional con-
               a specific behavioral problem. As a          ception of applied behavioral research
               way of conducting applied science,           seems to be shortchanging the larger
               however, this traditional model may re-      research agenda of behavior analysis
               sult in less than adequate experimental      by failing to adequately encourage this
               pursuit of applied questions in the be-      type of experimentation. Although we
               havior-analytic research enterprise. It      can point to a large and, in some ways,
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...The behavior analyst no spring distinguishing between applied research and practice james m johnston auburn university analytic is often viewed along a basic continuum of goals methods portion this has evolved in ways that combine service delivery although these two facets analysis should be closely related more clearly them particularly how we conceptualize conduct may enhance continuing development each differentiation im prove recruitment training graduate students key words evolution ofapplied experimental which had been established to was for publish journal experimen malized s with efforts tal jeab relatively small number re definition new specialty de searchers determine if prin scribed seminal article first ciples operant conditioning could issue some current dimensions used solve behavioral problems by baer everyday situations at wolf risley its placement tempts were practical focus premier authors rep style utations influence their ac perhaps part because many ademic departme...

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