Scientific Method for Sociology 
          
         An  area  of  inquiry  is  a  scientific  discipline  if  its  investigators  use  the 
         scientific method, which is a systematic approach to researching questions 
         and problems through objective and accurate observation, collection and 
         analysis of data, direct experimentation, and replication (repeating) of 
         these procedures. Scientists affirm the importance of gathering information 
         carefully,  remaining  unbiased  when  evaluating  information,  observing 
         phenomena, conducting experiments, and accurately recording procedures 
         and results. They are also skeptical about their results, so they repeat their 
         work and have their findings confirmed by other scientists.  
          
         Is sociological research scientific? Yes! By definition, sociological research 
         is  the  scientific  means  of  acquiring  information  about  various  aspects  of 
         society and social behavior. Sociologists use the scientific method. Like other 
         scientists, they stress the accurate and unbiased collection and analysis of 
         social data, use systematic observation, conduct experiments, and exhibit 
         skepticism. 
          
                Basic Sociological Research Concepts 
          
         An investigator begins a research study after evolving ideas from a specific 
         theory,  which  is  an  integrated  set  of  statements  for  explaining  various 
         phenomena. Because a theory is too general to test, the investigator devises 
         a  hypothesis,  or  testable  prediction,  from  the  theory,  and  tests  this 
         instead. The results of the research study either disprove or do not disprove 
         the hypothesis. If disproved, the investigator cannot make predictions based 
                                     
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        on the hypothesis, and must question the accuracy of the theory. If not 
        disproved, the scientist can make predictions based on the hypothesis. 
          
        A goal of sociological research is to discover the similarities, differences, 
        patterns, and trends of a given population. Members of a population who 
        participate  in  a  study  are  subjects  or  respondents.  When  the 
        characteristics  of  a  sample  of  the  population  are  representative  of  the 
        characteristics of the entire population, scientists can apply, or generalize, 
        their  findings  to  the  entire  population.  The  best  and  most  representative 
        sample is a random sample, in which each member of a population has an 
        equal chance of being chosen as a subject.  
         
        In  quantitative  research,  information  collected  from  respondents  (for 
        example,  a  respondent's  college  ranking)  is  converted  into  numbers  (for 
        example,  a  junior  may  equal  three  and  a  senior  four).  In  qualitative 
        research, information collected from respondents takes the form of verbal 
        descriptions or direct observations of events. Although verbal descriptions 
        and  observations  are  useful,  many  scientists  prefer  quantitative  data  for 
        purposes of analysis.  
         
        To  analyze  data,  scientists  use  statistics,  which  is  a  collection  of 
        mathematical  procedures  for  describing  and  drawing  inferences  from  the 
        data.  Two  types  of  statistics  are  most  common:  inferential,  used  for 
        making  predictions  about  the  population,  and  descriptive,  used  for 
        describing the characteristics of the population and respondents. Scientists 
        use both types of statistics to draw general conclusions about the population 
        being studied and the sample.  
         
                                
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                    A scientist who uses a questionnaire or test in a study is interested in the 
                    test's validity, which is its capacity to measure what it purports to measure. 
                    He  or  she  is  also  interested  in  its  reliability,  or  capacity  to  provide 
                    consistent results when administered on different occasions.  
                     
                                  Sociological Research: Designs, Methods 
                     
                    Sociologists use many different designs and methods to study society and 
                    social behavior. Most sociological research involves ethnography, or “field 
                    work”  designed  to  depict  the  characteristics  of  a  population  as  fully  as 
                    possible.  
                     
                    Three popular social research designs (models) are  
                             Cross-sectional, in which scientists study a number of individuals of 
                              different ages who have the same trait or characteristic of interest at a 
                              single time  
                             Longitudinal, in which scientists study the same individuals or society 
                              repeatedly over a specified period of time  
                             Cross-sequential,  in  which  scientists  test  individuals  in  a  cross-
                              sectional sample more than once over a specified period of time  
                     
                    Six of the most popular sociological research methods (procedures) are the 
                    case  study,  survey,  observational,  correlational,  experimental,  and  cross-
                    cultural methods, as well as working with information already available.  
                     
                    Case study research 
                     
                    In  case  study  research,  an  investigator  studies  an  individual  or  small 
                    group of individuals with an unusual condition or situation. Case studies are 
                                                                                     
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        typically  clinical  in  scope.  The  investigator  (often  a  clinical  sociologist) 
        sometimes uses self-report measures to acquire quantifiable data on the 
        subject. A comprehensive case study, including a long-term follow-up, can 
        last months or years.  
         
        On the positive side, case studies obtain useful information about individuals 
        and  small  groups.  On  the  negative  side,  they  tend  to  apply  only  to 
        individuals with similar characteristics rather than to the general population. 
        The high likelihood of the investigator's biases affecting subjects' responses 
        limits the generalizability of this method. 
         
        Survey research 
         
        Survey research involves interviewing or administering questionnaires, 
        or written surveys, to large numbers of people. The investigator analyzes the 
        data  obtained  from  surveys  to  learn  about  similarities,  differences,  and 
        trends.  He  or  she  then  makes  predictions  about  the  population  being 
        studied.  
         
        As with most research methods, survey research brings both advantages 
        and disadvantages. Advantages include obtaining information from a large 
        number of respondents, conducting personal interviews at a time convenient 
        for respondents, and acquiring data as inexpensively as possible. “Mail-in” 
        surveys  have  the  added  advantage  of  ensuring  anonymity  and  thus 
        prompting respondents to answer questions truthfully. 
         
        Disadvantages  of  survey  research  include  volunteer  bias,  interviewer 
        bias, and distortion. Volunteer bias occurs when a sample of volunteers 
        is not representative of the general population. Subjects who are willing to 
                                
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