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the history of food irradiation introduction history of sources became available with the applications research emergence of nuclear reactors with this food irradiation is a technology the use of radiation ...

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                The History of Food Irradiation
                INTRODUCTION                                     HISTORY OF                                       sources became available, with the 
                                                                 APPLICATIONS RESEARCH                            emergence of nuclear reactors. With this, 
                Food irradiation is a technology                 The use of radiation in food processing          food irradiation became a technically and 
                                                                 is by no means new. Meats, fish, fruits          commercially feasible process and a more 
                that can be safely used to reduce                and vegetables have been preserved               concerted research into the safety and 
                                                                 for centuries by the sun’s energy. Lately,       applications started to take place.
                food losses due to deterioration                 infrared and microwave radiation has  
                                                                 been added to the list of radiant energies       The modern era of food irradiation 
                and to control contamination                     in food processing.                              applications research began when the 
                                                                                                                  United States Atomic Energy Commission 
                causing illness and death.                       The idea of using ionizing radiation in food     (USAEC) initiated a coordinated research 
                                                                 preservation almost immediately followed         program in the use of ionizing radiation  
                                                                 Henri Becquerel’s discovery of radioactivity     for food preservation in 1950 and began 
                Proven as wholesome and toxicologically          in 1895. The suggestion to use ionizing          to provide spent fuel rods from nuclear 
                safe over many years, global                     energy to destroy pathogenic and spoilage        reactors. Most of these experiments took 
                commercialization of the process lags in         microorganisms in food was published in          place at the National Laboratory in 
                spite of the general knowledge that it can       a German medical journal, the same year.         Lemont, Illinois. Already in the early stages 
                offer all these benefits while eliminating       In the early 1900’s, patents were issued in      of this process, the limitation of spent  
                the need for the use of many potentially         the United States and the United Kingdom         fuel rods became increasingly apparent, 
                harmful chemicals. In part, the industry         describing the use of ionizing radiation         especially with regard to exact dosimetry. 
                and the scientific community have                to destroy microorganisms in food.               Cobalt-60 (Co-60), a deliberately produced 
                not been successful in promoting the             Interestingly, they felt the advantage of        radioisotope was found considerably more 
                technology and in educating the public.          this technique was that the improvements         suitable for this purpose. Cobalt-60 
                Noteworthy is the progress that has been         could be made without using any chemical         sources were made available by the 
                made since the beginning in the early            additives - a concept which is even more         USAEC to several U.S. academic 
                1900’s in the areas of applications              valid today. Back then, the technology was       institutions, such as the Massachusetts 
                research, regulatory developments,               not commercially viable as the only known        Institute of Technology (MIT), University  
                and international harmonization,                 ionizing radiation source was radium and         of California at Davis, University of 
                as well as commercial applications.              it was not easily available.                     Washington at Seattle and University  
                                                                                                                  of Florida at Gainesville, in the early 
                                                                 Other studies and patents followed. There        1960’s. Afterwards, the Marine Products 
                                                                 are reports of scientists using X-rays to kill   Development Irradiator, with 235 kCi 
                                                                 insects, eggs and larvae in tobacco leaves       (kilocuries) of Co-60 was built by the 
                                                                 and to eliminate Trichinosis parasites           National Marine Fisheries Services at 
                                                                 found in pork. Once again, the commercial        Gloucester, Massachusetts, followed by  
                                                                 viability of the process was precluded by        a Grain Products Irradiator with 35 kCi  
                                                                 the high cost and difficulties in acquiring      of Co-60 at the USDA’s Entomological 
                                                                 ionizing radiation sources. In recent            Research Centre in Savannah, Georgia.
                                                                 decades, more practical ionizing radiation 
                                                                                                     THE HISTORY OF FOOD IRRADIATION
               The U.S. Armed Forces played an important     (JECFI) convened meetings in 1970, 1976        meeting convened by the UN agencies FAO, 
               role in the early years of food irradiation   and 1980. At the 1980 meeting, the JECFI       IAEA and WHO. The three UN agencies 
               research. The U.S. Army Natick Laboratories   decisively stated:                             and 19 founding member governments’ 
               at Natick, Massachusetts acquired             1. “The Committee concluded that the           representatives signed a declaration, 
               a 1.3 MCi (megacurie) cobalt source              irradiation of any food commodity up        which established the ICGFI in 1984.
               and an 18 kW (kilowatt) electron linear          to an overall average dose of 10 kGy 
               accelerator. Food irradiation research           presents no toxicological hazard; hence,    The major objective of ICGFI is to evaluate 
               commenced in early 1950’s. After 1960,           toxicological testing of foods so treated   global developments and to provide  
               the U.S. Army concentrated on high dose          is no longer required.”                     a focal point of advice on the application 
               applications, to develop sterile meat                                                        of food irradiation to member states. The 
               products, to substitute for canned or         2. “The Committee considered that the          highest priority is assigned to its program 
               frozen military rations. The U.S. Army           irradiation of food up to an overall        of work to promote public information  
               continues to be an active member                 average dose of 10 kGy introduces no        on food irradiation, discussing the process 
               of the global community of researchers           special nutritional or microbiological      in an objective manner. It provides 
               in the field of food irradiation.                problems…”                                  publications on the safety, the effectiveness 
                                                                                                            and commercialization of the process, 
               Reports of successful experiments in the      Based on JECFI findings, the World Health      legislative aspects and control of irradiation 
               United States stimulated similar efforts      Organization published a document titled       facilities and also organizes training courses 
               in other countries. Shortly, national         “Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods “, in       for plant technical personnel, food 
               research programs were underway in            Geneva, in 1981. The document concluded        inspectors, journalists and others. ICGFI 
               Belgium, Canada, France, The Netherlands,     that no further toxicological or nutritional   membership has grown to 44 member 
               Poland, Russia, Germany and United            research is needed on foods irradiated         states in 1995.
               Kingdom. However, health authorities          up to an overall dose of 10 kGy.
               in these countries still hesitated to grant                                                  HISTORY OF REGULATORY 
               permissions to market irradiated foods.       Nevertheless, global research in food          DEVELOPMENTS
               Hot debates about the safety of irradiated    irradiation continues. To date, food           The first country to grant a clearance for 
               foods for human consumption were              irradiation has been studied more than any     human consumption of irradiated foods 
               recognized as the major obstacle to           other food process. All evidence gathered      was the former Soviet Union. In March 
               commercialization of the process. As          from almost a century of scientific and        1958, the former Soviet government 
               a result of this recognition, under the       technical research leads to the conclusion     granted a clearance to irradiate potatoes 
               sponsorship of the International Atomic       that food irradiation is a safe, beneficial    to inhibit sprouting and a year later,  
               Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna and the        and practical process.                         a clearance was given for grain to be 
               Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)                                                      irradiated for insect infestation. Canada,  
               in Rome, a group of 19 countries – which      INTERNATIONAL CONSULTATIVE                     in those days, was not lagging behind  
               promptly grew to 24 – formed the              GROUP ON FOOD IRRADIATION                      and granted a clearance in 1960 for sprout 
               International Project on Food Irradiation     When the International Project on              inhibition in potatoes at a maximum dose 
               (IFIP), in 1970, with headquarters in         Food Irradiation (IFIP) had successfully       of 10 kilorad (kRad) or 0.1 kilogray (kGy). 
               Karlsruhe, Germany. The World Health          completed its task of examining the            This dose was increased in 1963 to  
               Organization (WHO) in Geneva was              wholesomeness of foods irradiated up           15 kRad (0.15 kGy). In 1965, a clearance 
               associated with the project in an advisory    to the dose of 10 kGy and was terminated       to irradiate onions up to the same dose 
               capacity. Resources of the member             in 1982, the governments of participating      was added to the list. The first clearance  
               countries were pooled to carry out            nations and the international agencies         to irradiate foods in the USA was granted 
               chemical analyses and animal feeding          FAO/IAEA/WHO felt that the international       by the FDA in 1963, as a result of a petition 
               studies on a wide range of irradiated         platform provided by IFIP since 1970 was       to “Process Wheat and Wheat Products  
               foods, such as meat, fish, fruit, spices,     very useful and should be renewed. The         for the Control of Insect Infestation”. 
               wheat and rice. The Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO        International Consultative Group on Food 
               Expert Committee on Food Irradiation          Irradiation (ICGFI) was conceived at a 1983 
                                                                                                                                                             2
                                                                                                              THE HISTORY OF FOOD IRRADIATION
                The 1980 JECFI statement on                       INTERNATIONAL APPROVALS                            The United Nation’s Codex Alimentarius 
                wholesomeness and microbiological                 To date, clearances are in place in                Commission, after receiving the 
                and toxicological safety of irradiated foods      the USA for spices and dry aromatic                recommendations of the Joint FAO/IAEA/
                and the 1981 WHO publication of the               ingredients, fresh fruits and vegetables           WHO Expert Committee, referred the 
                “Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food”                (“fresh foods”), pork, poultry, red meats,         labeling issue to its Committee on 
                brochure prompted the publication of              shell eggs and food enzymes. Canadian              Labeling. This committee, which meets 
                another UN sponsored document on food             legislation has remained unchanged since           every 2 years, usually in Ottawa, Canada, 
                irradiation. The Codex Alimentarius, under        the 1989 reclassification of irradiation           is concerned with uniformity in labeling 
                the auspices of the Food and Agriculture          as a process, rather than an additive.             among the approximately 130 Codex 
                Organization (FAO) and the World Health           Foods cleared to date include potatoes,            member countries, including Canada and 
                Organization (WHO), published in 1984             onions, wheat and wheat flour, spices              the United States, to facilitate international 
                the “Codex General Standard for                   and dry aromatic ingredients.                      trade. The committee agreed to recommend 
                Irradiated Foods and Recommended                                                                     that the use of a logo or symbol be 
                International Code of Practice for the            Globally, national legislation is still            optional, but that the label of an irradiated 
                Operation of Radiation Facilities Used for        very divergent. This lack of international         food should carry a written statement 
                the Treatment of Foods”. The publication          harmonization is seen as a major                   indicating that it had been irradiated. 
                of this document had a profound influence         impediment to international trade  
                on further international developments and         as it constitutes a non-tariff barrier. For        In both the United States and Canada, 
                formed the basis of legislation in many           instance, the European Union has still             wholly irradiated foods, which are sold 
                countries. It reiterates JECFI’s statement        not reached agreement on a guideline               either in pre-packaged or bulk form, must 
                that: “The irradiation of foods up to an          for the regulation of food irradiation, due        be identified as having been irradiated, by 
                overall average dose of 10 kGy introduces         to resistance from Germany. In contrast            using the international irradiation symbol. 
                no special nutritional or microbiological         to Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium               Additionally, the statement “Treated with 
                problems”. It also identifies acceptable          and France routinely irradiate many foods.         Radiation”, “Treated by Irradiation” or 
                sources of ionizing radiation and provides        Regulatory developments in the Republic            “Irradiated” is required. Other statements 
                dose and energy limit guidelines. The             of South Africa deserve a separate mention         that explain the reason for irradiation,  
                “International Code of Practice” portion of       as, in addition to being one of the pioneers       or the benefits, may be used on the same 
                the document provides a recommendation            in commercialization, it is also the only          label. The main purpose of the label is  
                for global GMP standards for the                  country where precooked, shelf-stable meat         to advise consumers of the choice, rather 
                operation of a food irradiation facility.         products irradiated at 45 kGy are allowed          than to warn. Indeed, in some countries, 
                                                                  for retail sale. To date, 40 countries have        the irradiation label has become a symbol 
                Historically, Canada and USA listed               collectively approved irradiation                  of high quality. Irradiated ingredients 
                irradiation under their respective                of more than 50 different foods.                   representing 10% or more of a finished 
                legislation regulating additives. Needless                                                           product are to be described as “irradiated” 
                to say, this concept caused quite some            HISTORY OF LABELING                                on the list of ingredients. Ingredients  
                confusion as it is well known that                Labeling of foods treated with ionizing            in processed foods (i.e., spices) which 
                irradiation is a process using                    energy has been one of the most                    represent less than 10% of a finished 
                electromagnetic energy, rather than an            controversial issues related to commercial         product have no labeling requirements. 
                additive. The rationale of the agencies is        production. The Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO                 Foods that have been subjected to 
                that irradiation is administered as if it were    Expert Committee concluded that for                irradiation treatment are to be identified 
                an additive, to be able to take advantage         irradiated foods which had been approved           as such in any advertisements.
                of stricter controls in the legislation           as safe to eat, there was no valid scientific 
                governing additives. The USFDA continues          reason for identifying the products with  
                to administer irradiation in this manner,         a label at the retail level when similar 
                whereas the Health Protection Branch of           labeling is not required for the other 
                Health Canada reclassified irradiation as a       commonly used processing methods 
                food process in March 1989.                       (WHO, 1981). 
                                                                                                                                                                           3
                                                                                                             THE HISTORY OF FOOD IRRADIATION
                HISTORY OF                                        The IAEA/WHO/FAO Joint Division                  CONCLUSION
                COMMERCIALIZATION                                 publishes reports on volumes of                  Food irradiation technology safely 
                The first commercial use of food irradiation      commercially irradiated food products. Still,    preserves food and controls pathogens. 
                occurred in 1957 in Stuttgart, Germany,           it is difficult to obtain reliable information   Many years of in depth research have 
                when a spice manufacturer decided to              on quantities of commercially irradiated         resulted in regulatory approvals for this 
                improve the hygienic quality of his product       products because such information, which         process in a growing number of countries. 
                by treating it with accelerated electrons         comes from irradiation companies, is often       The commercialization of food irradiation 
                produced by a Van de Graaff electron              considered commercially confidential.            is also increasing. Retail stores that offer 
                accelerator. The machine was dismantled           However, each year, about 500,000 tons of        irradiated products for sale are experiencing 
                later in 1959.                                    food products are commercially irradiated        positive consumer responses. Given a free 
                                                                  in some 26 countries, notably in The             choice and factual information, consumers 
                In Canada, irradiation of potatoes to             Netherlands, France, Belgium, South Africa       are choosing irradiated foods. 
                inhibit sprouting was first approved in           and Ukraine. It is reported that the grain 
                1960. Shortly afterwards, an irradiation          irradiator in the port of Odessa, Ukraine,       Irradiation has been researched more than 
                company named Newfield Products Ltd.              radiation disinfests about 300,000 tons          any other food process. It has come a long 
                was formed at Mont St. Hillaire, near             of grain per annum. Other countries where        way since the pioneering days of early 
                Montreal. The plant was designed to process       foods are commercially irradiated are            1900’s. Important UN agencies such as the 
                some 15,000 tons of potatoes per month,           Canada, Hungary, Japan, Thailand and USA.        World Health Organization and the Food 
                using a Co-60 source. After the first year                                                         and Agriculture Organization now 
                of operation, Newfield Products ran into          In terms of commercial developments in           recognize irradiation as another important 
                financial difficulties and ceased operation.      North America, perhaps the most                  method of controlling pathogens and food 
                                                                  important milestone in commercialization         spoilage. Consumers and food processing 
                A significant event took place in December        was the establishment of the first North         companies will benefit from the 
                1988. A number of UN agencies, namely             American dedicated food irradiation              commercialization of this process.
                the FAO, WHO, IAEA, ITC and GATT (now             facility. Food Technology Services Inc. (FTSI, 
                renamed WTO) sponsored the International          formerly Vindicator) was commissioned in 
                Conference on the Acceptance, Control             the last quarter of 1991, in the town of 
                of, and Trade in Irradiated Food in Geneva.       Mulberry, near Tampa, Florida. This 
                Official delegations from 57 countries            state-of-the-art pallet irradiation facility 
                brought 220 participants together,                has started its commercial activities by 
                comprising government officials at the            irradiating strawberries and citrus for sale 
                senior policy-making level, experts in            in Miami and Chicago. Presently, a variety 
                international law, health, energy, and food,      of irradiated fruits and vegetables are 
                and representatives of consumer unions.           regularly distributed in retail outlets in 
                An International Document on Food                 Florida, Illinois, Ohio and Indiana. Some 
                Irradiation was adopted by consensus,             quantities of poultry are being processed 
                which made recommendations on                     for institutional customers and a number 
                inter-governmental and governmental               of articles are processed under military 
                activities, process control and trade.            food research programs. As well, the 
                                                                  facility supplies irradiated food to NASA 
                                                                  for use in the space program.
                                                                                                                                                                         4
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...The history of food irradiation introduction sources became available with applications research emergence nuclear reactors this is a technology use radiation in processing technically and by no means new meats fish fruits commercially feasible process more that can be safely used to reduce vegetables have been preserved concerted into safety for centuries sun s energy lately started take place losses due deterioration infrared microwave has added list radiant energies modern era control contamination began when united states atomic commission causing illness death idea using ionizing usaec initiated coordinated preservation almost immediately followed program henri becquerel discovery radioactivity proven as wholesome toxicologically suggestion provide spent fuel rods from safe over many years global destroy pathogenic spoilage most these experiments took commercialization lags microorganisms was published at national laboratory spite general knowledge it german medical journal same y...

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