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The History of Food Irradiation
INTRODUCTION HISTORY OF sources became available, with the
APPLICATIONS RESEARCH emergence of nuclear reactors. With this,
Food irradiation is a technology The use of radiation in food processing food irradiation became a technically and
is by no means new. Meats, fish, fruits commercially feasible process and a more
that can be safely used to reduce and vegetables have been preserved concerted research into the safety and
for centuries by the sun’s energy. Lately, applications started to take place.
food losses due to deterioration infrared and microwave radiation has
been added to the list of radiant energies The modern era of food irradiation
and to control contamination in food processing. applications research began when the
United States Atomic Energy Commission
causing illness and death. The idea of using ionizing radiation in food (USAEC) initiated a coordinated research
preservation almost immediately followed program in the use of ionizing radiation
Henri Becquerel’s discovery of radioactivity for food preservation in 1950 and began
Proven as wholesome and toxicologically in 1895. The suggestion to use ionizing to provide spent fuel rods from nuclear
safe over many years, global energy to destroy pathogenic and spoilage reactors. Most of these experiments took
commercialization of the process lags in microorganisms in food was published in place at the National Laboratory in
spite of the general knowledge that it can a German medical journal, the same year. Lemont, Illinois. Already in the early stages
offer all these benefits while eliminating In the early 1900’s, patents were issued in of this process, the limitation of spent
the need for the use of many potentially the United States and the United Kingdom fuel rods became increasingly apparent,
harmful chemicals. In part, the industry describing the use of ionizing radiation especially with regard to exact dosimetry.
and the scientific community have to destroy microorganisms in food. Cobalt-60 (Co-60), a deliberately produced
not been successful in promoting the Interestingly, they felt the advantage of radioisotope was found considerably more
technology and in educating the public. this technique was that the improvements suitable for this purpose. Cobalt-60
Noteworthy is the progress that has been could be made without using any chemical sources were made available by the
made since the beginning in the early additives - a concept which is even more USAEC to several U.S. academic
1900’s in the areas of applications valid today. Back then, the technology was institutions, such as the Massachusetts
research, regulatory developments, not commercially viable as the only known Institute of Technology (MIT), University
and international harmonization, ionizing radiation source was radium and of California at Davis, University of
as well as commercial applications. it was not easily available. Washington at Seattle and University
of Florida at Gainesville, in the early
Other studies and patents followed. There 1960’s. Afterwards, the Marine Products
are reports of scientists using X-rays to kill Development Irradiator, with 235 kCi
insects, eggs and larvae in tobacco leaves (kilocuries) of Co-60 was built by the
and to eliminate Trichinosis parasites National Marine Fisheries Services at
found in pork. Once again, the commercial Gloucester, Massachusetts, followed by
viability of the process was precluded by a Grain Products Irradiator with 35 kCi
the high cost and difficulties in acquiring of Co-60 at the USDA’s Entomological
ionizing radiation sources. In recent Research Centre in Savannah, Georgia.
decades, more practical ionizing radiation
THE HISTORY OF FOOD IRRADIATION
The U.S. Armed Forces played an important (JECFI) convened meetings in 1970, 1976 meeting convened by the UN agencies FAO,
role in the early years of food irradiation and 1980. At the 1980 meeting, the JECFI IAEA and WHO. The three UN agencies
research. The U.S. Army Natick Laboratories decisively stated: and 19 founding member governments’
at Natick, Massachusetts acquired 1. “The Committee concluded that the representatives signed a declaration,
a 1.3 MCi (megacurie) cobalt source irradiation of any food commodity up which established the ICGFI in 1984.
and an 18 kW (kilowatt) electron linear to an overall average dose of 10 kGy
accelerator. Food irradiation research presents no toxicological hazard; hence, The major objective of ICGFI is to evaluate
commenced in early 1950’s. After 1960, toxicological testing of foods so treated global developments and to provide
the U.S. Army concentrated on high dose is no longer required.” a focal point of advice on the application
applications, to develop sterile meat of food irradiation to member states. The
products, to substitute for canned or 2. “The Committee considered that the highest priority is assigned to its program
frozen military rations. The U.S. Army irradiation of food up to an overall of work to promote public information
continues to be an active member average dose of 10 kGy introduces no on food irradiation, discussing the process
of the global community of researchers special nutritional or microbiological in an objective manner. It provides
in the field of food irradiation. problems…” publications on the safety, the effectiveness
and commercialization of the process,
Reports of successful experiments in the Based on JECFI findings, the World Health legislative aspects and control of irradiation
United States stimulated similar efforts Organization published a document titled facilities and also organizes training courses
in other countries. Shortly, national “Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods “, in for plant technical personnel, food
research programs were underway in Geneva, in 1981. The document concluded inspectors, journalists and others. ICGFI
Belgium, Canada, France, The Netherlands, that no further toxicological or nutritional membership has grown to 44 member
Poland, Russia, Germany and United research is needed on foods irradiated states in 1995.
Kingdom. However, health authorities up to an overall dose of 10 kGy.
in these countries still hesitated to grant HISTORY OF REGULATORY
permissions to market irradiated foods. Nevertheless, global research in food DEVELOPMENTS
Hot debates about the safety of irradiated irradiation continues. To date, food The first country to grant a clearance for
foods for human consumption were irradiation has been studied more than any human consumption of irradiated foods
recognized as the major obstacle to other food process. All evidence gathered was the former Soviet Union. In March
commercialization of the process. As from almost a century of scientific and 1958, the former Soviet government
a result of this recognition, under the technical research leads to the conclusion granted a clearance to irradiate potatoes
sponsorship of the International Atomic that food irradiation is a safe, beneficial to inhibit sprouting and a year later,
Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna and the and practical process. a clearance was given for grain to be
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) irradiated for insect infestation. Canada,
in Rome, a group of 19 countries – which INTERNATIONAL CONSULTATIVE in those days, was not lagging behind
promptly grew to 24 – formed the GROUP ON FOOD IRRADIATION and granted a clearance in 1960 for sprout
International Project on Food Irradiation When the International Project on inhibition in potatoes at a maximum dose
(IFIP), in 1970, with headquarters in Food Irradiation (IFIP) had successfully of 10 kilorad (kRad) or 0.1 kilogray (kGy).
Karlsruhe, Germany. The World Health completed its task of examining the This dose was increased in 1963 to
Organization (WHO) in Geneva was wholesomeness of foods irradiated up 15 kRad (0.15 kGy). In 1965, a clearance
associated with the project in an advisory to the dose of 10 kGy and was terminated to irradiate onions up to the same dose
capacity. Resources of the member in 1982, the governments of participating was added to the list. The first clearance
countries were pooled to carry out nations and the international agencies to irradiate foods in the USA was granted
chemical analyses and animal feeding FAO/IAEA/WHO felt that the international by the FDA in 1963, as a result of a petition
studies on a wide range of irradiated platform provided by IFIP since 1970 was to “Process Wheat and Wheat Products
foods, such as meat, fish, fruit, spices, very useful and should be renewed. The for the Control of Insect Infestation”.
wheat and rice. The Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO International Consultative Group on Food
Expert Committee on Food Irradiation Irradiation (ICGFI) was conceived at a 1983
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THE HISTORY OF FOOD IRRADIATION
The 1980 JECFI statement on INTERNATIONAL APPROVALS The United Nation’s Codex Alimentarius
wholesomeness and microbiological To date, clearances are in place in Commission, after receiving the
and toxicological safety of irradiated foods the USA for spices and dry aromatic recommendations of the Joint FAO/IAEA/
and the 1981 WHO publication of the ingredients, fresh fruits and vegetables WHO Expert Committee, referred the
“Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food” (“fresh foods”), pork, poultry, red meats, labeling issue to its Committee on
brochure prompted the publication of shell eggs and food enzymes. Canadian Labeling. This committee, which meets
another UN sponsored document on food legislation has remained unchanged since every 2 years, usually in Ottawa, Canada,
irradiation. The Codex Alimentarius, under the 1989 reclassification of irradiation is concerned with uniformity in labeling
the auspices of the Food and Agriculture as a process, rather than an additive. among the approximately 130 Codex
Organization (FAO) and the World Health Foods cleared to date include potatoes, member countries, including Canada and
Organization (WHO), published in 1984 onions, wheat and wheat flour, spices the United States, to facilitate international
the “Codex General Standard for and dry aromatic ingredients. trade. The committee agreed to recommend
Irradiated Foods and Recommended that the use of a logo or symbol be
International Code of Practice for the Globally, national legislation is still optional, but that the label of an irradiated
Operation of Radiation Facilities Used for very divergent. This lack of international food should carry a written statement
the Treatment of Foods”. The publication harmonization is seen as a major indicating that it had been irradiated.
of this document had a profound influence impediment to international trade
on further international developments and as it constitutes a non-tariff barrier. For In both the United States and Canada,
formed the basis of legislation in many instance, the European Union has still wholly irradiated foods, which are sold
countries. It reiterates JECFI’s statement not reached agreement on a guideline either in pre-packaged or bulk form, must
that: “The irradiation of foods up to an for the regulation of food irradiation, due be identified as having been irradiated, by
overall average dose of 10 kGy introduces to resistance from Germany. In contrast using the international irradiation symbol.
no special nutritional or microbiological to Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium Additionally, the statement “Treated with
problems”. It also identifies acceptable and France routinely irradiate many foods. Radiation”, “Treated by Irradiation” or
sources of ionizing radiation and provides Regulatory developments in the Republic “Irradiated” is required. Other statements
dose and energy limit guidelines. The of South Africa deserve a separate mention that explain the reason for irradiation,
“International Code of Practice” portion of as, in addition to being one of the pioneers or the benefits, may be used on the same
the document provides a recommendation in commercialization, it is also the only label. The main purpose of the label is
for global GMP standards for the country where precooked, shelf-stable meat to advise consumers of the choice, rather
operation of a food irradiation facility. products irradiated at 45 kGy are allowed than to warn. Indeed, in some countries,
for retail sale. To date, 40 countries have the irradiation label has become a symbol
Historically, Canada and USA listed collectively approved irradiation of high quality. Irradiated ingredients
irradiation under their respective of more than 50 different foods. representing 10% or more of a finished
legislation regulating additives. Needless product are to be described as “irradiated”
to say, this concept caused quite some HISTORY OF LABELING on the list of ingredients. Ingredients
confusion as it is well known that Labeling of foods treated with ionizing in processed foods (i.e., spices) which
irradiation is a process using energy has been one of the most represent less than 10% of a finished
electromagnetic energy, rather than an controversial issues related to commercial product have no labeling requirements.
additive. The rationale of the agencies is production. The Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Foods that have been subjected to
that irradiation is administered as if it were Expert Committee concluded that for irradiation treatment are to be identified
an additive, to be able to take advantage irradiated foods which had been approved as such in any advertisements.
of stricter controls in the legislation as safe to eat, there was no valid scientific
governing additives. The USFDA continues reason for identifying the products with
to administer irradiation in this manner, a label at the retail level when similar
whereas the Health Protection Branch of labeling is not required for the other
Health Canada reclassified irradiation as a commonly used processing methods
food process in March 1989. (WHO, 1981).
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THE HISTORY OF FOOD IRRADIATION
HISTORY OF The IAEA/WHO/FAO Joint Division CONCLUSION
COMMERCIALIZATION publishes reports on volumes of Food irradiation technology safely
The first commercial use of food irradiation commercially irradiated food products. Still, preserves food and controls pathogens.
occurred in 1957 in Stuttgart, Germany, it is difficult to obtain reliable information Many years of in depth research have
when a spice manufacturer decided to on quantities of commercially irradiated resulted in regulatory approvals for this
improve the hygienic quality of his product products because such information, which process in a growing number of countries.
by treating it with accelerated electrons comes from irradiation companies, is often The commercialization of food irradiation
produced by a Van de Graaff electron considered commercially confidential. is also increasing. Retail stores that offer
accelerator. The machine was dismantled However, each year, about 500,000 tons of irradiated products for sale are experiencing
later in 1959. food products are commercially irradiated positive consumer responses. Given a free
in some 26 countries, notably in The choice and factual information, consumers
In Canada, irradiation of potatoes to Netherlands, France, Belgium, South Africa are choosing irradiated foods.
inhibit sprouting was first approved in and Ukraine. It is reported that the grain
1960. Shortly afterwards, an irradiation irradiator in the port of Odessa, Ukraine, Irradiation has been researched more than
company named Newfield Products Ltd. radiation disinfests about 300,000 tons any other food process. It has come a long
was formed at Mont St. Hillaire, near of grain per annum. Other countries where way since the pioneering days of early
Montreal. The plant was designed to process foods are commercially irradiated are 1900’s. Important UN agencies such as the
some 15,000 tons of potatoes per month, Canada, Hungary, Japan, Thailand and USA. World Health Organization and the Food
using a Co-60 source. After the first year and Agriculture Organization now
of operation, Newfield Products ran into In terms of commercial developments in recognize irradiation as another important
financial difficulties and ceased operation. North America, perhaps the most method of controlling pathogens and food
important milestone in commercialization spoilage. Consumers and food processing
A significant event took place in December was the establishment of the first North companies will benefit from the
1988. A number of UN agencies, namely American dedicated food irradiation commercialization of this process.
the FAO, WHO, IAEA, ITC and GATT (now facility. Food Technology Services Inc. (FTSI,
renamed WTO) sponsored the International formerly Vindicator) was commissioned in
Conference on the Acceptance, Control the last quarter of 1991, in the town of
of, and Trade in Irradiated Food in Geneva. Mulberry, near Tampa, Florida. This
Official delegations from 57 countries state-of-the-art pallet irradiation facility
brought 220 participants together, has started its commercial activities by
comprising government officials at the irradiating strawberries and citrus for sale
senior policy-making level, experts in in Miami and Chicago. Presently, a variety
international law, health, energy, and food, of irradiated fruits and vegetables are
and representatives of consumer unions. regularly distributed in retail outlets in
An International Document on Food Florida, Illinois, Ohio and Indiana. Some
Irradiation was adopted by consensus, quantities of poultry are being processed
which made recommendations on for institutional customers and a number
inter-governmental and governmental of articles are processed under military
activities, process control and trade. food research programs. As well, the
facility supplies irradiated food to NASA
for use in the space program.
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