A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY
                      Authors (first edition) :
                  Rebecca Howland and Lisa Benatar
        Project Editor and Booklet Designer:   Christy Symanski
        Copy Editor: Linda Emerson Technical Illustrator:   Janet Okagaki
        Revisions editor (March 2000): Jezz Leckenby
        Production Coordinator and Cover Designer: Clarence Wong
        Copyright Notice
        Copyright © 1993-2000 by ThermoMicroscopes. All rights reserved.
        No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
        means (electronic or mechanical, including photocopying) for any purpose, without
        written permission from ThermoMicroscopes.
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        AutoProbe, Aurora, CP-Research, Explorer, Explorer  LifeSciences, Explorer
        PolymerSystem,  M5,  Piezolever,  Ultralever,  Microlever,  dLever,  ScanMaster,
        MicroCell, Materials Analysis Package, MAP, MapPlot, ProScan, PSI, Park Scientific
        Instruments and TopoMetrix Corporation are trademarks of ThermoMicroscopes. All
        others are trademarks of their respective owners.
                                                                                                          Contents     i
                               CONTENTS ................................................................................ I
                               INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... V
                                 HAPTER               ECHNIQUES
                               C           1 SPM T                  ............................................................... 1
                               1.1      Scanning Tunneling Microscopy.............................................................. 2
                               1.2      Atomic Force Microscopy........................................................................ 5
                                        1.2.1Contact AFM................................................................................... 7
                                        1.2.2Non-contact AFM.......................................................................... 10
                                        1.2.3Intermittent-contact AFM.............................................................. 13
                               1.3      Magnetic Force Microscopy................................................................... 13
                               1.4 Lateral Force Microscopy.............................................................................. 15
                               1.5      Other SPM Techniques........................................................................... 17
                                        1.5.1Force Modulation Microscopy....................................................... 17
                                        1.5.2Phase Detection Microscopy ......................................................... 18
                                        1.5.3Electrostatic Force Microscopy..................................................... 20
                                        1.5.4Scanning Capacitance Microscopy................................................21
                                        1.5.5Scanning Thermal Microscopy......................................................21
                                        1.5.6Near-field Scanning Optical Microscopy......................................22
                                        1.5.7Nanolithography ............................................................................ 22
                               1.6      SPMs as Surface Analysis Tools............................................................ 26
                                        1.6.1Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy.................................................26
                                        1.6.2Force vs. Distance Curves.............................................................. 27
                               1.7      SPM Environments................................................................................. 30
                                        1.7.1Ultra-high Vacuum........................................................................ 30
                                        1.7.2Ambient.......................................................................................... 31
                                        1.7.3Liquid............................................................................................. 31
                                        1.7.4Electrochemical.............................................................................. 32
                               1.8      Further Reading...................................................................................... 32
                                                           ii        Contents
                                                               HAPTER                    HE  CANNER
                                                           C                     2 T            S                      ................................................................... 35
                                                           2.1              Scanner Design and Operation............................................................... 36
                                                           2.2              Scanner Nonlinearities............................................................................ 39
                                                                            2.2.1Intrinsic Nonlinearity..................................................................... 39
                                                                            2.2.2Hysteresis....................................................................................... 40
                                                                            2.2.3Creep.............................................................................................. 42
                                                                            2.2.4Aging.............................................................................................. 44
                                                                            2.2.5Cross Coupling............................................................................... 46
                                                           2.3              Software Correction................................................................................ 48
                                                           2.4              Hardware Correction.............................................................................. 49
                                                                            2.4.1Optical Techniques........................................................................ 51
                                                                            2.4.2Capacitive Techniques................................................................... 51
                                                                            2.4.3Strain-gauge Techniques................................................................ 51
                                                           2.5              Tests for Scanner Linearity .................................................................... 52
                                                                            2.5.1Intrinsic Nonlinearity..................................................................... 52
                                                                            2.5.2Hysteresis....................................................................................... 53
                                                                            2.5.3Creep.............................................................................................. 53
                                                                            2.5.4Aging.............................................................................................. 55
                                                                            2.5.5Cross Coupling............................................................................... 56
                                                                            2.5.6Step Profile:  Hysteresis, Creep, and Cross Coupling in Z............56
                                                           2.6              Further Reading...................................................................................... 57
                                                               HAPTER                                 ROBES
                                                           C                     3 SPM P                               ................................................................... 58
                                                           3.1              Introduction ............................................................................................ 58
                                                           3.2              Cantilevers.............................................................................................. 58
                                                                            3.2.1Properties of Cantilevers................................................................ 59
                                                           3.3              Tip Shape and Resolution....................................................................... 60
                                                           3.4              How to Select a Probe ............................................................................ 65
                                                           3.5              Probe Handling....................................................................................... 69
                                                           3.6              Further Reading...................................................................................... 69
                                                                                                          Contents    iii
                                 HAPTER       MAGE  RTIFACTS
                               C           4 I        A            .............................................................. 70
                               4.1      Tip Convolution...................................................................................... 70
                               4.2      Convolution with Other Physics............................................................. 73
                               4.3      Feedback Artifacts.................................................................................. 73
                               4.4      Image Processing Capabilities................................................................ 74
                               4.5      Test for Artifacts..................................................................................... 75
                               4.6      Further Reading...................................................................................... 75
                                 HAPTER        EY  EATURES OF             S
                               C           5 K     F                SPM ................................................... 76
                               5.1      User Interface ......................................................................................... 76
                               5.2      Optical Microscope ................................................................................ 76
                               5.3      Probe Handling....................................................................................... 78
                               5.4      System Accessibility............................................................................... 78
                               Notes:..................................................................................................................... 1