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Methods of Enquiry
Methods of Enquiry
in Psychology
Chapter 2 in Psychology
After reading this chapter, you would be able to
explain the goals and nature of psychological enquiry,
understand different types of data used by psychologists,
describe some important methods of psychological enquiry,
understand the methods of analysing data, and
learn about the limitations of psychological enquiry and ethical
considerations.
Contents
Introduction
Goals of Psychological Enquiry
Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
Alternative Paradigms of Research
Nature of Psychological Data
Some Important Methods in Psychology
Observational Method
Example of an Experiment (Box 2.1)
Experimental Method
Correlational Research
Survey Research
Example of Survey Method (Box 2.2)
Psychological Testing
Case Study
Analysis of Data
Quantitative Method
Qualitative Method
Limitations of Psychological Enquiry
Ethical Issues
An idea that is developed and put into Key Terms
action is more important than an idea Summary
that exists only as an idea. Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Gautam Buddha
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Introduction
You have read in the first chapter that psychology is the study of experiences,
behaviours, and mental processes. You may now be curious to know how
psychologists study these phenomena. In other words, what methods are used to
study behaviour and mental processes? Like all scientists, psychologists seek to
describe, predict, explain and control what they study. For this, psychologists rely
on formal, systematic observations to address their questions. It is the methodology
that makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Psychologists use a variety of research
methods because questions about human behaviour are numerous and all of them
cannot be studied by a single method. Methods such as observation, experimental,
correlational research, survey, psychological testing and case study are more
frequently used to study the problems of psychology. This chapter will familiarise
you with the goals of psychological enquiry, the nature of information or data that
we collect in psychological studies, the diverse range of methodological devices
available for the study of psychology, and some important issues related to
psychological studies.
Prediction : The second goal of scientific
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY
enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you are
Like any scientific research, psychological able to understand and describe the behaviour
enquiry has the following goals: description, accurately, you come to know the relationship
prediction, explanation, and control of of a particular behaviour with other types of
behaviour, and application of knowledge so behaviours, events, or phenomena. You can
generated, in an objective manner. Let us try then forecast that under certain conditions
to understand the meaning of these terms. this particular behaviour may occur within a
certain margin of error. For example, on the
Description : In a psychological study, we basis of study, a researcher is able to establish
attempt to describe a behaviour or a a positive relationship between the amount of
phenomenon as accurately as possible. This study time and achievement in different
helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour subjects. Later, if you come to know that a
from other behaviours. For example, the particular child devotes more time for study,
researcher may be interested in observing you can predict that the child is likely to get
study habits among students. Study habits good marks in the examination. Prediction
may consist of diverse range of behaviours, becomes more accurate with the increase in
such as attending all your classes regularly, the number of persons observed.
submitting assignments on time, planning
your study schedule, studying according to Explanation : The third goal of psychological
the set schedule, revising your work on a daily enquiry is to know the causal factors or
basis etc. Within a particular category there determinants of behaviour. Psychologists are
may be further minute descriptions. The primarily interested in knowing the factors
researcher needs to describe her/his meaning that make behaviour occur. Also, what are the
of study habits. The description requires conditions under which a particular behaviour
recording of a particular behaviour which does not occur. For example, what makes
helps in its proper understanding. some children more attentive in the class? Why
Chapter 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology 23
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some children devote less time for study as increase efficiency. Scientific enquiry is also
compared to others? Thus, this goal is conducted to develop new theories or
concerned with identifying the determinants constructs, which leads to further research.
or antecedent conditions (i.e. conditions that
led to the particular behaviour) of the Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
behaviour being studied so that cause-effect Science is not so defined by what it
relationship between two variables (objects) or investigates as by how it investigates. The
events could be established. scientific method attempts to study a
particular event or phenomenon in an
Control : If you are able to explain why a
particular behaviour occurs, you can control objective, systematic, and testable manner.
that behaviour by making changes in its The objectivity refers to the fact that if two
antecedent conditions. Control refers to three or more persons independently study a
things: making a particular behaviour happen, particular event, both of them, to a great
reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, you extent, should arrive at the same conclusion.
can allow the number of hours devoted to For instance, if you and your friend measure
study to be the same, or you can reduce them the length of a table using the same measuring
or there may be an increase in the study hours. device, it is likely that both of you would arrive
The change brought about in behaviour by at the same conclusion about its length.
psychological treatment in terms of therapy The second characteristic of scientific
in persons, is a good example of control. research is that it follows systematic
procedure or steps of investigation. It includes
Application : The final goal of the scientific
the following steps: conceptualisation of a
enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the problem, collection of data, drawing
lives of people. Psychological research is conclusions, and revising research conclusions
conducted to solve problems in various and theory (see Fig.2.1). Let us discuss these
settings. Because of these efforts the quality steps in some detail.
of life of people is a major concern of
(1) Conceptualising a Problem : The process
psychologists. For example, applications of
yoga and meditation help to reduce stress and of scientific research begins when a researcher
1 2
Conceptualising a Problem Collecting Data
Selecting a topic for study Participants, methods,
tools and procedure
4
3
Revising Research
Conclusions Drawing Conclusions
Restating existing hypothesis/ Using statistical methods
formulating revised or a
new theory
Fig.2.1 : Steps in Conducting Scientific Enquiry
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selects a theme or topic for study. Then s/he on television, higher is the degree of aggression
narrows down the focus and develops specific displayed by them’. In your research, you shall
research questions or problems for the study. now try to prove whether the statement is true
This is done on the basis of review of past or false.
research, observations, and personal
experiences. For example, earlier you read that (2) Collecting Data : The second step in
a researcher was interested in observing the scientific research is to collect data. Data
study habits of students. For this purpose, collection requires developing a research
s/he may identify different facets of study design or a blueprint of the entire study. It
habits first, and then decide whether s/he is requires taking decisions about the following
interested in study habits shown in the class four aspects: (a) participants in the study,
or at home. (b) methods of data collection, (c) tools to be
In psychology we study a diverse range of used in research, and (d) procedure for data
problems related to behaviour and collection. Depending upon the nature of the
experiences. These problems may be related study, the researcher has to decide who would
to (a) understanding our own behaviour (for be the participants (or informants) in the
example, how do I feel and behave when I am study. The participants could be children,
in a state of joy or grief? How do we reflect on adolescents, college students, teachers,
our own experiences and behaviour? Why do managers, clinical patients, industrial
we forget?); (b) understanding other workers, or any group of individuals in whom/
individual’s behaviour (for example, Is Abhinav where the phenomenon under investigation
more intelligent than Ankur? Why is someone is prevalent. The second decision is related to
always not able to complete her or his work on the use of methods of data collection, such as
time? Can the habit of smoking be controlled? observation method, experimental method,
Why do some people suffering from chronic correlational method, case study, etc. The
illness not take medicines?); (c) group researcher needs to decide about appropriate
influences on individual behaviour (for tools (for example, interview schedule,
example, why does Rahim spend more time observation schedule, questionnaire, etc.) for
meeting with people than doing his work?, data collection. The researcher also decides
Why does a cyclist perform better when cycling about how the tools need to be administered
before a group of persons than when cycling to collect data (i.e. individual or group). This
alone?); (d) group behaviour (for example, why is followed by actual collection of data.
does risk-taking behaviour increase when
(3) Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to
people are in a group?), and (e) organisational analyse data so collected through the use of
level (for example, why are some organisations statistical procedures to understand what the
more successful than others? How can an data mean. This can be achieved through
employer increase the motivation of graphical representations (such as preparation
employees?). The list is long and you will learn of pie-chart, bar-diagram, cumulative
about these various facets in subsequent frequencies, etc.) and by the use of different
chapters. If you are inquisitive, you can write statistical methods. The purpose of analysis
down a number of problems which you may is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions
like to probe. accordingly.
After identification of the problem, the
(4) Revising Research Conclusions : The
researcher proceeds by developing a tentative
answer of the problem, which is called researcher may have begun the study with a
hypothesis. For example, based on the earlier hypothesis that there exists a relationship
evidence or your observation, you might between viewing violence on television and
develop a hypothesis ‘greater is the amount aggression among children. S/he has to see
of time spent by children in viewing violence whether the conclusions support this
Chapter 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology 25
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