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9/21/2016 Food preservation AccessScience from McGrawHill Education
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Food preservation
Article by:
Mendonca, Aubrey F. Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.
Potter, Norman N. Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Publication year: 2014
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1036/10978542.267200 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1036/10978542.267200)
Content
Heat
Cooling and freezing
Concentration and dehydration
Irradiation
pH control
Chemical preservative
Packaging
Combined preservation methods
Bibliography
Additional Readings
The branch of food science and technology that deals with the practical control of factors capable of adversely affecting the
safety, nutritive value, appearance, texture, flavor, and keeping qualities of raw and processed foods. Since thousands of
food products differing in physical, chemical, and biological properties can undergo deterioration from such diverse causes
as microorganisms, natural food enzymes, insects and rodents, industrial contaminants, heat, cold, light, oxygen, moisture,
dryness, and storage time, food preservation methods differ widely and are optimized for specific products. Apart from
application of a single food preservation method, a combination of methods may be used to improve the safety and storage
stability of foods. This concept is currently referred to as hurdle technology; it is also known as food preservation by
combined methods, combination preservation, or combination techniques.
Food preservation methods involve the use of heat, refrigeration, freezing, concentration, dehydration, radiation, pH
control, chemical preservatives, and packaging applied to produce various degrees of preservation in accordance with the
differing use patterns and shelflife needs of unique products.
Perishability of many food materials was somewhat controlled long before the principles of modern food preservation were
understood. Cheese and other fermented milk products, wine, sauerkraut and pickles, smoked meats and fish, dried and
sugared fruits, and numerous other foods had their beginnings in attempts to extend the storage life of the basic
commodities from which they were derived, but results were often disappointing.
Optimum food preservation must eliminate or minimize all of the factors that may cause a given food to deteriorate, without
producing undue adverse effects. This can be especially difficult since the components of foods may be more sensitive to
preservation treatments than the highly resistant bacterial spores and natural food enzymes targeted for destruction. Many
nonbiological causes of food deterioration must be prevented also; these include oxygen, light, and loss of moisture.
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While traditional methods of food preservation, including heating, freezing, drying, refrigerating, and acidifying, are still
widely used in the food industry, new food preservation methods are actively being researched. These include physical
methods such as high hydrostatic pressure, pulsed electric fields, ohmic heating, and ultrasound. Such methods have been
shown to be effective in preserving food with minimal effects on nutrients and sensory quality that might otherwise be
destroyed by traditional food preservation methods such as heating, drying, and acidification.
Heat
Thermal processes to preserve foods vary in intensity. True sterility to ensure total destruction of the most heatresistant
bacterial spores in nonacidic foods may require a treatment of at least 250°F (121°C) of wet heat for at least 15 min, or its
lethal equivalent, to be delivered throughout the entire food mass. Such a treatment would be damaging to most foods. The
term commercial sterility refers to a less severe condition that still assures destruction of all pathogenic organisms, as well
as organisms that, if present, could grow in the product and produce spoilage under normal conditions of handling and
storage. Most of the canned food supply that is stable at room temperature is commercially sterile. This is commonly
achieved in canning retorts with steam under pressure at temperatures and for times that vary, depending upon container
size and chemical and physical properties of the food, which can affect heattransfer rates and the thermal resistance of
organisms. See also: Sterilization (/content/sterilization/655600)
Many foods are subjected to still less severe heating by methods that produce pasteurization to assure destruction of
pathogens and extend product shelf life by inactivating food enzymes and reducing the number of spoilage organisms.
Pasteurization of milk is achieved with a temperature of 145°F (63°C) for 30 min, or its thermal lethal equivalent. Since
significant numbers of nonpathogenic bacteria survive, storage life is extended by refrigerating the pasteurized milk. Beer,
wine, fruit juices, and other foods are commonly pasteurized, but at different temperatures. Heat blanching is a kind of
pasteurization applied to vegetables to inactivate enzymes when such products are to be frozen, since frozen storage of
itself does not stop enzyme activity. See also: Pasteurization (/content/pasteurization/492000)
The lethality of heat always depends upon temperature and time. Higher temperatures for shorter times can be as effective
as lower temperatures for longer times, and appropriate combinations can be selected for thermal lethal equivalency. Time
temperature combinations with equivalent microbial lethality, however, are not equal with respect to the damaging effects
these can have on color, flavor, texture, and nutritive values of foods. In this regard, higher temperatures for shorter times
will yield products superior to those produced with lower temperatures for longer times.
Advances in thermal processing incorporate the hightemperature shorttime (HTST) principle whether pasteurization or
commercial sterilization is the goal. The application of hightemperature shorttime processing is more easily accomplished
with liquid foods or liquids containing small particulates than with solid foods, since the former can easily be heated and
cooled rapidly by passing them in thin layers through specially designed heat exchangers. This is done in the process of
aseptic canning, where products prepared to commercial sterility standards are heated to temperatures as high as 302°F
(150°C) for 1 or 2 s and as quickly cooled, and then sealed in previously sterilized containers within an aseptic
environment.
Cooling and freezing
The slowing of biological and chemical activity with decreasing temperature is the principle behind cooling (refrigeration)
and freezing preservation. In addition, when water is converted to ice, free water required for its solvent properties by all
living systems is removed. Even severe freezing, however, will not destroy large numbers of microorganisms or completely
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inactivate food enzymes; these can resume rapid activity, unless inhibited by other means, when food is removed from cold
or frozen storage.
Most microorganisms grow best in the range of about 60–100°F (16–38°C). Psychrotrophic bacteria thrive at low
temperatures and can grow slowly at temperatures down to 32°F (0°C) and below if free water exist. Most pathogens
cannot grow below 40°F (4°C). Home refrigerators commonly operate in the range of about 40–45°F (4–7°C). Some fruits
and vegetables store best at temperatures of about 50°F (10°C), and commercial refrigerated storage may be optimized
for specific products. Refrigerated storage life of many foods can be extended by the use of packaging that minimizes
moisture loss and controls gas atmospheres within packages.
Highestquality frozen foods depend upon very fast rates of freezing. Slow freezing leads to the growth of large irregular ice
crystals capable of disruption of delicate food textures. Slow freezing also increases the time during which food constituents
can react adversely with solutes that become concentrated by liquid water changing to ice as freezing progresses. Thus,
rapid freezing has been the goal of advanced freezing processes.
Commercial freezing methods utilize refrigerated still air; highvelocity air, which is faster and more efficient; and high
velocity air made to suspend particulate foods, such as peas, as in a fluidizedbed fast freezer. Indirectcontact freezing
utilizes hollow flat plates chilled with an internally circulated refrigerant to freeze solid foods, or with refrigerated tubular heat
exchangers that rapidly slushfreeze liquids. Immersion freezing involves direct contact of the food or its container with such
refrigerants as cold brine, a glycol approved for food, or a fastfreezing cryogenic liquid, such as liquefied carbon dioxide or
liquid nitrogen. Liquid nitrogen has a temperature of −320°F (−196°C). See also: Cold storage (/content/cold
storage/148000)
Concentration and dehydration
When sufficient water is removed from foods, microorganisms will not grow, and many enzymatic and nonenzymatic
reactions will cease or be markedly slowed. Free water that can enter into biological and chemical reactions is more
important than total water, since some water may be bound and unavailable to support deteriorative processes. Free water
exerts vapor pressure and possesses water activity (that is, provides water for bacterial growth), which must be decreased
below critical levels if foods are to be preserved. Sugar syrups are concentrated foods whose water activity is below that
required to support microbial spoilage. Sugar added to fruit juice will bind water, lower the juice's water activity, and, in
sufficient concentration, yield a jelly that does not undergo microbial spoilage at room temperature. Concentration
preservation, therefore, can be achieved by physically removing water, as by boiling or with lowertemperature vacuum
evaporation, or by binding water through the addition of sugar, salt, or other solutes.
Foods preserved by dehydration contain considerably lower water activity and less total water than concentrated foods.
Sundried cereal grains contain about 14% total water. Most dehydrated foods such as dried milk, instant coffee, and
dehydrated potato flakes or granules contain less than 10% total water, and some, such as fruit juice crystals, contain less
than 2%.
Most dehydration methods utilize heat to vaporize and remove water. This is most efficiently achieved when a food can be
highly subdivided to produce a large surface area for rapid heat transfer into the food and rapid moisture transfer out.
Liquid foods and purees commonly are atomized into a heated chamber (as in spray drying), spread thinly over the surface
of a revolving heated drum from which they are continuously scraped (as in drum drying), and sometimes thickened or
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foamed and cast on belts that move through a tunnel oven. Solid foods may be diced to uniform piece size for more even
drying and dried with heated moving air in cabinets, on belts, or within rotating cylinders to provide tumbling action.
Fluidizedbed dryers use highvelocity air to suspend particulates for still faster drying.
The heat and oxygen sensitivity of many foods necessitates vacuum dehydration for high quality. Under vacuum, water can
be removed at reduced temperature, and oxidative changes are minimized. Solid foods tend to shrink and undergo shape
distortion when they are dried. This can be overcome by freezedrying whereby foods are frozen quickly and placed in a
chamber under high vacuum. Vacuum and temperature conditions are regulated to promote sublimation of water vapor
from the ice phase without the ice melting. The food's structure remains rigid as it goes directly from the frozen state to
dryness. Because of its gentleness, freezedrying is also used to dehydrate liquid foods such as coffee. A disadvantage of
freezedrying, however, is that it is more costly than other drying methods. See also: Drying (/content/drying/206100);
Sublimation (/content/sublimation/664000)
Irradiation
Xrays, ultraviolet light, and ionizing radiations (including gamma and beta rays) belong to the electromagnetic spectrum of
radiations and differ in frequency, wavelength, penetrating power, and the effects upon biological and nonbiological
systems. Ionizing radiations may be obtained from radioactive isotopes, such as cobalt60, or from electron accelerator
machines. These radiations penetrate foods and exert their major effects by producing free radicals from water and other
substrates. Depending upon dose intensity, these radiations can inhibit the sprouting of tubers, destroy insects, inactive
some enzymes, and kill microorganisms to the point of pasteurization or sterilization. Preservation of food using sterilizing
irradiation doses is done for various purposes, such as for use by astronauts during space missions and for immune
compromised persons who are highly susceptible to microbial infection. See also: Free radical (/content/free
radical/271500)
Food irradiation remains highly controversial, partly because of fears that the safety of products and processes cannot be
adequately regulated. In the United States, treatment of spices, raw or frozen beef, pork, or poultry meat to destroy
microbial contamination is among the very few applications that are permitted. Several other countries permit wider use of
food irradiation, including lowdose irradiation pasteurization to extend the storage life of highly perishable fruits and
vegetables, poultry, and seafoods.
pH control
Hydrogenion concentration affects the rate and course of a great variety of chemical reactions. Microbial growth and
metabolism and the activities of food enzymes exhibit pH optima and can be controlled to various degrees beyond these
optima. The natural acids of certain fruits and vegetables, acid added as a chemical, and acid produced by fermentation
can inhibit or partially inhibit several pathogenic and spoilage organisms. Clostridium botulinum, the most heatresistant
pathogen found in foods, will not grow and produce toxin at a pH of 4.6 or below. Therefore, foods with a pH in this range
do not constitute a health hazard from this organism, and they do not require heat processing as severe as that required
for more alkaline foods. Further, acid enhances the lethality of heat, often permitting milder heating conditions.
The pH of acidic foods, however, is rarely sufficiently low to assure longterm preservation from acid alone. Many acidic and
fermented foods further depend upon prior pasteurization of their ingredients, the addition of salt and other chemicals, and
refrigeration. See also: pH
(/content/ph/504000)
Chemical preservative
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