UNIT 1               OBSERVATION METHOD
               Structure
               1.0    Introduction
               1.1    Objectives
               1.2    Definition and Meaning of Observation
                      1.2.1  The Diverse Situation in which Observation can be Used
                      1.2.2  Planning the Observation
                      1.2.3  Problems of Observation
                      1.2.4  Ethical Issues in Observation
               1.3    Characteristics of Observation
                      1.3.1  Units of Observation
                      1.3.2  Degree of Inference
                      1.3.3  Generalisation or Applicability
                      1.3.4  Gaining Access and Leaving the Field
                      1.3.5  Length of Time in the Field
               1.4    Sampling
               1.5    Data Collection Techniques
               1.6    Types of Observation
                      1.6.1  Casual vs. Formal Observation
                      1.6.2  Direct vs. Indirect Observation
                      1.6.3  Unstructured Observation
                      1.6.4  Participant Observation
                      1.6.5  Specimen Records
                      1.6.6  Anecdotes
                      1.6.7  Structured Observation
                      1.6.8  Checklists
                      1.6.9  Rating Scales
                      1.6.10 Shortcoming of Rating Scales
               1.7    Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation
               1.8    Guides for Observation Method
               1.9    Let Us Sum Up
               1.10 Unit End Questions
               1.11 Suggested Readings
               1.0       INTRODUCTION
               Observation of the behaviour of individuals, groups and organisations or their products/
               outcomes is not only an essential aspect of human life; it also forms á basic method
               of scientific research in behavioural sciences. Specifically, it is useful in such fields as
               Developmental Psychology, Anthropology, Behaviour Modification, Social Psychology
               and Evaluation Research.
               Observation can be used both in the laboratory as well as in naturalistic settings.
               Although behavioural scientists have largely used this method in the naturalistic settings
               it also forms a significant component of experimental (both field and laboratory)
               procedure. Indeed, in laboratory settings, careful Observation of subjects may not                                                          5
              Tools of Data Collection        only shed light on the limitations of the experimental procedures but also generate
                                              ideas for future research.
                                              Observation involves looking and listening very carefully. We all watch other people
                                              sometimes, but we do not usually watch them in order to discover particular information
                                              about their behaviour. This is what Observation in Social Science involves. Observation
                                              is a complex research method because it often requires the researcher to play a
                                              number of roles and to use a number of techniques; including her/his five senses in
                                              order to collect data. In this unit we will be defining observation, understand how it
                                              is used as a method of research, we will also learn about the types of observation
                                              and the manner in which it is used as a tool of research.  The procedure using
                                              observation as a tool for collecting data is also presented in this unit.
                                              1.1      OBJECTIVES
                                              After completing this unit, you will be able to:
                                                  define the method of observation as a research tool;
                                                  describe observation;
                                                  explain the meaning of observation;
                                                  elucidate the types of observation;
                                                  analyse the data obtained from observation; and
                                                  list out the advantages and disadvantages of observation method.
                                              1.2      DEFINITION AND MEANING OF
                                                       OBSERVATION
                                              Observation has been defined as “the selection, provocation, recording and encoding
                                              that set of behaviours and setting/s concerning  an organism ‘in situ’ which is consistent
                                              with empirical aims”. Literally, Observation is a process of ‘seeing’ the things or
                                              events with naked eye with or without the use of any device to unravel the complexity
                                              of any phenomena to satisfy the demands of an empirical question.
                                              Observation is way of gathering data by watching behaviour, events, or noting physical
                                              characteristics in their natural settings. Observations can be overt (everyone knows
                                              they are being observed) or covert (no one knows they are being observed and the
                                              observer is concealed).
                                              The benefit of covert Observation is that people are more likely to behave naturally
                                              if they do not know they are being observed. However, you will typically need to
                                              conduct overt Observations because of ethical problems related to concealing your
                                              Observation.
                                              Observation can also be either direct or indirect. Direct Observation is when you
                                              watch interactions, processes, or behaviours as they occur. For example, observing
                                              a teacher teaching a lesson from a Psychology curriculum to determine whether they
                                              are delivering it with fidelity. Indirect Observation is when you watch the results of
                                              interactions, processes, or behaviours. For example, observing the amount of plate
                                              waste left by students in a school cafeteria to determine whether a new food is
                                              acceptable to them.
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         1.2.1 The Diverse Situations in which Observation can be            Observation Method
               Used
         The various situations in which observation as a method can be used are given
         below:
         1) When you are trying to understand an ongoing process or situation. Through
            Observation, you can monitor or watch a process or situation that you are
            evaluating as it occurs.
         2) When you are gathering data on individual behaviours or interactions between
            people.
         3) Observation allows you to watch peoples’ behaviours and interactions directly,
            or watch for the results of behaviours or interactions.
         4) When you need to know about a physical setting, that is a setting or environment
            where something takes place can help increase  understanding of the event,
            activity, or situation you are evaluating.   For example, you can observe whether
            a classroom or training facility is conductive to learning.
         5) When data collection from individuals is not a realistic option.  If respondents
            are unwilling or unable to provide data provide data through questionnaires or
            interviews, Observation is a method that requires little from the individuals from
            whom you need data.
         1.2.2 Planning the Observation
         In planning observation of an event etc., the following points will have to be kept in
         mind.
         1) Determine the focus: Think about the evaluation questions you want to answer
            through Observation and select a few areas of focus for your data collection.
            For example, you may want to know how well the Psychology curriculum is
            being implemented in the classroom. Your focus areas might be interactions
            between students and teachers’, and teachers’ knowledge, skills, and behaviours.
         2) Design a system for data collection: Once you have focused your evaluation,
            think about the specific item for which you want to collect data and then
            determine how you will collect the information you need. There are three primary
            ways of collecting Observation data. These three methods can be combined to
            meet your data collection needs.
         3) Recording sheets and checklists are the most standardised way of collecting
            Observation data and include both preset questions and responses. These forms
            are typically used for collecting data that can be easily described in advance
            (e.g., topics that might be covered in a Psychotherapy lesson).
         4) Observation guides list the interactions, processes, or behaviours to be observed
            with space to record open-ended narrative data.
         5) Field notes are the least standardised way of collecting Observation data and
            do not include preset questions or responses. Field notes are open-ended
            narrative data that can be written or dictated onto a tape recorder.
         6) Select the sites: Select an adequate number of sites to help ensure that they are
            representative of the larger population and will provide an understanding of the
            situation you are observing.                                                 7
              Tools of Data Collection        7)   Select the observers:  You may choose to be the only observer or you may
                                                   want  to  include  others  in  conducting  Observations.  Stakeholders,  other
                                                   professional staff members, interns and graduate students, and volunteers, are
                                                   potential observers.
                                              8)   Train the observers: It is critical that the observers are well-trained in your
                                                   data collection process to ensure high quality and consistent data. The level of
                                                   training will vary based on the complexity of the data collection and the individual
                                                   capabilities of the observers.
                                              9)   Time your Observations appropriately: Programs and processes typically follow
                                                   a sequence of events. It is critical that you schedule your Observations so that
                                                   you are observing the components of the activity that will answer your evaluation
                                                   questions. This requires advance planning.
                                              1.2.3 Problems of Observation
                                              1)   Selection of phenomenon for observation
                                              The problem of selecting a phenomenon for Observation becomes very real, especially
                                              when knowledge of the detailed movements of the observed is essential for an
                                              understanding of the behaviour under study. The researcher is not merely confronted
                                              with the problem of selecting the items of greatest importance from the mass of data
                                              or quantities of discrete phenomena. He/she has to be equally concerned with organising
                                              discrete entities in terms of the divergent concepts and orientations of the observers.
                                              Indeed, it is the observers who are expected to categorise them on the basis of
                                              varied concepts and their frames of reference thus providing an organisation to the
                                              incoherent jumble of the “real world”. If the phenomena are not organised, the results
                                              are useless for understanding what has really occurred. Hence, it would be a difficult
                                              task for the researcher to evolve a theory which can effectively explain and predict
                                              behaviour.
                                              Indeed, the problem of selecting phenomena for Observation is intricately related to
                                              the problem of conceptualisation. As the observers are bombarded by a vast quantity
                                              and ‘wide array of stimuli, they are confronted with the baffling problem of choosing
                                              among them the phenomenon of greatest importance. This problem can be resolved,
                                              if the researcher himself/herself selects the phenomenon for Behavioural Observation
                                              prior to sending his observers to the fie1d.
                                              2)   Observer inference
                                              The observer himself/herself is both a crucial strength and a crucial weakness in
                                              Behavioural Observation. He/she has to process the information stemming from his/
                                              her Observations and thereafter make inferences relating to complex constructs (e.g.,
                                              aggression, hostility, leadership, conformity, etc.) He/she can meaningfully relate the
                                              observed behaviour to the variables under study. Of course, this requires that he/she
                                              possesses great powers of inference. The weakness of the observer is that he/she
                                              is likely to be influence by his/her own biases and, thus make incorrect inferences
                                              from his/her Observations. In conjunction with such personal biases, lack of knowledge
                                              of behaviour under study may also invalidate the Observation.
                                              Besides, the observer-inference difficulty, in several social situations, merely the
                                              presence of an observer may influence the object of Observation. Indeed, people
                                              tend to act differently and even artificially when observed. They put their best foot
                                              forward and thus, behave in an exemplary way rather than in a customary way.
              8                               People tend to adapt quickly to an observer’s presence and behave as they would