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Current Biology
Magazine
Similar understanding will also allow Primer of oyster reefs may also have been
us to better characterize the impacts lost globally. Overfishing has been
of rising levels of anthropogenic Marine ecosystem a persistent and growing problem
noise. Particle motion sensors in marine environments, and loss of
based on the model of a ﬁ sh ear and services fisheries is also linked to declining
dolphin-inspired sonar will provide water quality through the increasing
opportunities for improved sensing Edward B. Barbier occurrence of harmful algal blooms,
technology for instrumentation, offshore pollution and oxygen
autonomous underwater vehicles, depletion (hypoxia). Given the current
and perhaps even augmented reality Coastal and marine environments can rapid loss of coastal and marine
options for human divers to enhance begin up to 100 kilometers inland, environments, it is important to
our direct experience of the underwater extend to the continental shelf, and understand what is at stake in terms
acoustic world. include ocean systems with waters of the foregone economic benefits
up to 50 meters in depth. The distinct and values as marine ecosystems
FURTHER READING marine ecosystems found in these disappear.
environments include estuarine and In this Primer, I provide an overview
Amorim, M.C.P., Vasconcelos, R.O., and Fonseca, P.J. coastal wetlands, such as marshes of some of the key beneﬁ ts, or
(2015). Fish sounds and mate choice. In Sound and mangroves, sand beaches and ‘services’, provided by marine
Communication in Fishes F. Ladich, ed. (Vienna: dunes, seagrass beds, and coral and ecosystems before going on to
Springer), pp. 1–33.
Clark, C.W., Rice, A.N., Ponirakis, D.W., and Dugan, oyster reefs. discuss some of the key challenges
P.J. (2011). Marine acoustic ecologies and Marine ecosystems represent in quantifying and valuing marine
acoustic habitats: concepts, metrics, and realities.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 130, 2320–2320. some of the most heavily exploited ecosystem services. One important
Erbe, C., Reichmuth, C., Cunningham, K., Lucke, K., ecosystems throughout the world. feature of these critical habitats is
and Dooling, R. (2016). Communication masking For example, coastal zones make that they are interconnected from the
in marine mammals: A review and research
strategy. Marine Poll. Bull. 103, 15–38. up just 4% of the earth’s total land land to the ocean. Thus, the challenge
Hawkins, A.D., Pembroke, A.E., and Popper, A.N. area and 11% of the world’s oceans, for future research is to assess the
(2015). Information gaps in understanding the
effects of noise on ﬁ shes and invertebrates. Rev. yet they contain more than a third of beneﬁ ts that arise from such an
Fish Biol. Fish. 25, 39–64. the world’s population and account interconnected seascape.
Johnson, M., de Soto, N.A., and Madsen, P.T. (2009). for 90% of the catch from marine
Studying the behaviour and sensory ecology of
marine mammals using acoustic recording tags: a fisheries. However, human activities Marine ecosystem services
review. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 395, 55–73. are now threatening many of the Collectively, the benefits provided
Ladich, F., and Schulz-Mirbach, T. (2016). Diversity
in ﬁ sh auditory systems: one of the riddles of world’s remaining marine ecosystems to humans by ecosystems are
sensory biology. Front. Ecol. Evol. 4, 2–28. and the benefits they provide. Due referred to as ecosystem services.
Nedelec, S.L., Campbell, J., Radford, A.N., Simpson, to coastal development, population Table 1 provides some examples of
S.D., and Merchant, N.D. (2016). Particle motion:
the missing link in underwater acoustic ecology. growth, pollution and other human marine ecosystem services, which
Methods Ecol. Evol. 7, 836–842. activities, 50% of salt marshes, 35% comprise various goods, services and
Pacini, A.F., and Nachtigall, P.E. (2016). Hearing in
whales and dolphins: relevance and limitations. In of mangroves, 30% of coral reefs, cultural or other benefits. The goods
The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life II (New York: and 29% of seagrasses have already produced by marine ecosystem
Springer), pp. 801–807. been lost or degraded worldwide over services are the products obtained
Parmentier, E., and Fine, M.L. (2016). Fish sound
production: insights. In Vertebrate Sound several decades. As much as 89% from these habitats, such as fish
Production and Acoustic Communication
(Springer International Publishing) pp. 19–49.
Radford, C.A., and Montgomery, J.C. (2016). Potential Table 1. Examples of marine ecosystem services.
competitive dynamics of acoustic ecology. In
The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life II (New York: Goods Services Cultural beneﬁ ts
Springer) pp. 895–900.
Rodgers, P.H. and Cox, M. (1988). Underwater sound
as a biological stimulus. In Sensory Biology of • Fish harvests • Recreation and tourism • Carbon sequestration
Aquatic Animals, J. Atema, R.R. Fay, A.N. Popper • Wild plant and animal • Transportation • Bequest for future
and W.N. Tavolga, eds. (New York: Springer- resources generations
Verlag), pp. 131–149.
Urick, R.J. (1983). Principles of Underwater Sound. • Raw materials • Scientiﬁ c and educational • Religious signiﬁ cance
(New York: McGraw-Hill). opportunities
van Oosterom, L., Montgomery, J.C., Jeffs, A.G., and
Radford, C.A. (2016). Evidence for contact calls • Genetic material • Flood control
in ﬁ sh: conspeciﬁ c vocalisations and ambient
soundscape inﬂ uence group cohesion in a
nocturnal species. Sci. Rep. 6, 19098. • Water • Storm protection
Versluis, M., Schmitz, B., von der Heydt, A., and
Lohse, D. (2000). How snapping shrimp snap: • Pollution control
through cavitating bubbles. Science 289,
2114–2117. • Breeding and nursery
habitats
Institute of Marine Science, University of • Shoreline stabilization and
Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, erosion control
New Zealand.
E-mail: j.montgomery@auckland.ac.nz (J.C.M); • Carbon sequestration
c.radford@auckland.ac.nz (C.A.R)
Current Biology 27, R431–R510, June 5, 2017 © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. R507
Current Biology
Magazine
Marine Ecosystem Economic and recreation. Landed fish catch
ecosystem services system can be easily observed and, in many
cases, the fish are often marketed;
Functions Goods reliable prices therefore exist to
Biogeochemical cycling Fish harvests, indicate the value of the catch.
Flow of energy water, genetic
Biological productivity Ecological material Human well- Recreation and tourism values can
Niche, refuge, habitat production Benefits being also be determined by estimating
Services
Recreation, tourism, the willingness-to-pay of visitors to
erosion control, unique marine habitats for specific
Structure storm protection,
Biotic (living) marine pollution control, activities, such as coral reefs for
animal and plant habitat provision recreational fishing or scuba diving,
communities Cultural benefits Production of goods bird watching in salt marshes, and
Abiotic (non-living) Religious, heritage, and services
components of the bequest values tourist visits to marine parks.
marine environment However, valuing the services
Current Biology associated with regulatory and
habitat functions of marine
Figure 1. How marine ecosystems generate economic beneﬁ ts. ecosystems is often more
The structure and functioning of marine ecosystems lead to the ecological production of ecosys- challenging. For one, these services,
tem services. Some of these goods, services and cultural beneﬁ ts directly impact human well- such as storm protection, habitat
being, whereas others indirectly impact the welfare of humans through supporting or protecting support for offshore fisheries, and
valuable economic assets and production activities. erosion or pollution control, are
generally not marketed. Instead,
harvests, wild plant and animal on coastal property and communities. the value of these services needs
resources, and abstracted water. Finally, mangrove systems are to be determined indirectly through
In developing countries, some of thought to prevent coastal erosion, their support for valuable production
the more important uses of marine thus preserving valuable agricultural activities or through the protection
ecosystems tend to involve both land and coastal properties. of property and other important
small-scale commercial and ‘informal’ Many unique marine habitats are economic assets from damages.
economic activity to support the considered to have important cultural This requires knowledge of how
livelihoods of local populations, for and other benefits. That is, people the specific marine ecosystem
example, through fishing, hunting, may benefit from the knowledge functions and structure influence the
fuelwood extraction, and so forth. that an ecosystem simply exists ‘ecological production’ of a particular
Recreation, tourism and water or that it will be around for future service, such as storm protection
transport are familiar services generations to enjoy. These values or habitat–fishery linkages, as well
provided by many marine may be particularly important among as the market conditions of the final
ecosystems. Some unique estuarine, indigenous communities in rural marketed commodity that is impacted
coastal, and marine habitats are also areas, as they see their culture, by the marine ecosystem service.
important stores of genetic material heritage and traditional knowledge For example, one important
and have educational and scientific closely intertwined with the service of mangroves, marshes,
research value as well. Coral reefs are surrounding environment. Even some reefs and seagrass beds is that
particularly important in this regard, of the poorest rural communities have they provide a coastal breeding
as they are the most structurally expressed interest in seeing their and nursery habitat for offshore
complex and taxonomically diverse ‘way of life’ passed on to their heirs fisheries. As many fisheries are
marine ecosystems, providing habitat and future generations. exploited commercially, the inability
for tens of thousands of associated to control fishing access and the
fishes and invertebrates. Quantifying and valuing marine presence of production subsidies and
Marine ecosystems also provide ecosystem services other market distortions can impact
other important services, associated Quantifying the contributions, or harvests, the price of fish sold and,
with their regulatory and habitat ‘benefits’, provided by ecosystems ultimately, the estimated value of
functions, such as pollution control, in terms of human welfare is often coastal habitats in supporting these
storm protection, flood control, referred to as valuing ecosystem fisheries. In addition, it is important
habitat for species, and shoreline services. The biggest challenge to determine how variations in the
stabilization. For example, in the to quantifying and valuing marine breeding and nursery habitat affect
case of mangrove ecosystems, the ecosystem services is the inadequate the biological production and growth
mangrove swamps may serve as knowledge available to link changes of the offshore fisheries and, in turn,
a nursery and breeding habitat for in ecosystem structure and function both current and future harvests.
many important fish species, some to the production of valuable goods More than one marine habitat may
of which may migrate as adults and services (Figure 1). also contribute to the ‘life cycle’ of
to offshore fisheries. In addition, This connection is more the fishery, including larval dispersal
mangroves can reduce the economic straightforward for well-known goods and fish migration among the various
damages inflicted by tropical storms and services, such as fish harvests habitats, which is important when
R508 Current Biology 27, R431–R510, June 5, 2017
Current Biology
Magazine
determining the contribution of each
habitat to the value of the fishery. Marine habitat–fishery linkage
Finally, there is evidence that the Water pollution and sediment control
nursery and breeding habitat function
of mangroves and marshes is greater Storm protection
at the seaward edge or fringe of the
coastal habitat than further inland. Seagrass bed
This means that the seaward edge Coral reef xxxxxx
may have more value in supporting Open water Sheltered bay Seaward edge Inland boundary
offshore fisheries than habitats Mangrove landscape
located away from the sea. Current Biology
Marine ecosystems also have an
important role in protecting coastal Figure 2. A mangrove–seagrass–coral reef seascape and marine ecosystem services.
populations and property from In a mangrove–seagrass–coral reef seascape, all three habitats interact to provide support for
flood and wind damage resulting marine ﬁ sheries, water pollution and sediment control, and storm protection. The connectivity
from periodic storms. For example, among habitats mutually reinforces the support of marine ﬁ sheries because adult ﬁ sh use the
marshes, mangroves, beaches and coastal habitats for breeding and nurseries and the resulting fry migrate to coral reef ﬁ sheries.
dunes, seagrass beds, and reefs are The sheltering effect of reefs may enhance the ability of seagrass beds, marshes, mangroves and
able to buffer shorelines from severe other coastal habitats to attenuate waves and buffer winds. Water pollution and sediment control
weather, thus protecting coastal by mangroves and seagrass beds may also protect coral reefs, thus enhancing their goods and
human populations, property, and services.
economic activities. In the case of
flood damage, the critical role of and, in turn, how these services nursery grounds for some marine
such ecosystems is attenuating and directly and indirectly lead to fisheries, whereas the bays sheltered
dissipating the wave surges caused economic benefits. by coral reefs protect the coastal
by storms. Both the hydrodynamic ecosystems and their ability to act
properties of storm surges offshore The marine seascape and as reproductive habitats. In addition,
and the presence and friction of ecosystem services all three habitats interact to support
ecosystems and their vegetation Marine ecosystems do not exist in the life cycle underlying the marine
may be important in determining isolation but are often interconnected fisheries. Coral fisheries depend on
how well coastal properties and lives across a continuous land–sea the coastal habitats for breeding and
are protected from the surge once interface, or seascape. Typical marine nurseries and the resulting fry migrate
it lands onshore. In addition, the habitats found in a seascape that back to the reefs. Thus, the presence
protection against wind and wave extends from the coast to open of mangroves and seagrass beds
damage from coastal storm and water are mangroves, salt marshes, considerably enhances the biomass
surge events may vary significantly seagrass meadows, coral reefs and of coral reef fish communities.
across marine habitats. For salt oyster reefs, as the connectivity Mangroves and seagrass beds
marshes and mangroves, wave between and among these coastal absorb waste water discharge
attenuation diminishes as the and near-shore marine habitats is into the sea and act as sinks for
habitat moves further inland (i.e. the most pronounced. As a result pollutants, sediment and other
as its distance from the shoreline of nutrient fluxes and material organic materials. This pollution and
increases). In the case of near-shore exchange, including movements of sediment control service not only
coral or oyster reefs and seagrasses, marine fauna, these habitats provide benefits coastal communities and
wave attenuation is a function of the important goods and services both their production activities but also
water depth above the reef or grass individually and through functional protects coral reefs, thus enhancing
bed, which also varies spatially. linkages across the seascape. their goods and services as well. In
Wave attenuation by sand beaches Figure 2 illustrates how the the case of storm protection, the
and dunes displays exponentially interconnectivity among the marine presence of coral reefs may enhance
increasing protection at higher habitats comprising a mangrove– the benefits provided by coastal
elevations or where dune vegetation seagrass–coral reef seascape may habitats. Coral reefs often shelter
cover is greatest. enhance three important ecosystem coastal habitats by buffering oceanic
As progress is made in quantifying services: habitat–fishery linkages; waves and currents and slowing
and valuing marine ecosystem water pollution and sediment control; down periodic storm surges, and thus
services, we are improving our and storm protection. How the three support the ability of seagrass beds
understanding of the structure and habitats interact is important in and mangroves to attenuate waves
function of the marine ecosystems determining the provision of these and buffer winds.
that provide such benefits. Further services across the entire seascape Taking into account the possible
progress in valuing critical marine and the multiple economic benefits connectivity of habitats comprising
ecosystem services is dependent on provided. the seascape clearly has implications
understanding how the ecological For example, mangroves and for both the valuation of benefits,
production of these services arises seagrass beds serve as breeding and such as storm and flood protection,
Current Biology 27, R431–R510, June 5, 2017 R509
Current Biology
Magazine
habitat–fishery linkages and pollution benefits are undervalued or even of erosion, mitigation of temperature
control, and the management of ignored in coastal and marine variations, and protection from sea-
coastal and near-shore marine development decisions. It is critically level rise.
habitats. Because of seascape important to assess the benefits As we learn more about marine
connectivity, a decision to develop, provided by these systems so that ecosystem services and the
exploit or protect one part of the we can better understand what is ecological production underlying
seascape, such as a mangrove along at stake as marine habitats are lost them, we should expect our
the coast, could have important and how to improve coastal and assessment and valuation of these
implications for the habitat in the rest marine management and policy. benefits to evolve as well. Thus, this
of the seascape, such as a coral reef, This article has sought to contribute field will likely continue to provide
and thus the goods and services they to the literature concerning these fertile ground for research for some
provide. For example, mangroves habitats by reviewing the current years to come.
and seagrass beds could become state of knowledge about marine
more important as nursery habitat ecosystem services, documenting FURTHER READING
when excessive fishing effort levels the progress made as well as the
are applied to the reef because the challenges remaining in the economic Barbier, E.B., and Lee, K.D. (2014). Economics
mangroves can directly offset the valuation of these services, and of the marine seascape. Int. Rev. Environ.
negative impacts of fishing effort. demonstrating how valuing marine Resour. Econ. 7, 35–65.
Barbier, E.B. (2012). Progress and challenges
This suggests that managing fisheries ecosystem services can influence in valuing coastal and marine ecosystem
to take into account ecological policy decisions concerning the services. Rev. Environ. Econ. Pol. 6, 1–19.
and economic synergies across an management of these environments. Barbier, E.B., Hacker, S.D., Kennedy, C.,
Koch, E.W., Stier, A.C., and Silliman, B.R.
entire mangrove–seagrass–coral Recent research has revealed (2011). The value of estuarine and coastal
reef seascape would require four how key functional linkages arising ecosystem services. Ecol. Monogr. 81,169–
additional considerations: the from the connectivity across an 183.
Bertness, M.D., Bruno, J.F., Silliman, B.R.,
relative importance of mangrove entire seascape of marine habitats and Stachowicz, J.J., eds. (2014). Marine
and seagrass nursery sites to the influences the provisioning of Community Ecology and Conservation
coral reef and marine fisheries; the ecosystem goods and services, (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc).
McLeod, K., and Leslie, H., eds. (2009).
connectivity of individual reefs to the and valuing these benefits across Ecosystem-Based Management for the
coastal nurseries; areas of nursery a seascape is providing new Oceans (Washington, DC: Island Press).
Pittman, S.J., Kneib, R.T., and Simenstad, C.A.
habitat that have an unusually large analytical, management and policy (2011) Practicing coastal seascape ecology.
importance to specific reefs and insights. Future research is likely to Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 427,197–190.
marine fisheries; and identification focus on: estimating the multiple Spalding, M.D., Ruffo, S., Lacambra, C., Meliane,
I., Hale L.Z., Shepard, C.C., and Beck, M.W.
of priority coastal sites for mangrove benefits arising from seascapes with (2014). The role of ecosystems in coastal
and seagrass bed restoration interconnected habitats, such as protection: Adapting to climate change and
projects. estuaries and mangrove–seagrass– coastal hazards. Ocean Coast. Manag. 90,
50–57.
coral reef systems; accounting for
Future trends in marine ecosystem the spatial variability of ecosystem Department of Economics & Finance,
services services across various marine University of Wyoming, College of Business,
Marine ecosystems are disappearing habitats; and estimating lesser-known Department 3985, 1000 E University
at a rapid rate and on an alarming marine ecosystem services, such as Avenue, Laramie, WY 82071, USA.
scale worldwide. Yet many of their reduction of wind damage, control E-mail: EBarbier@uwyo.edu
R510 Current Biology 27, R431–R510, June 5, 2017

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...Current biology magazine similar understanding will also allow primer of oyster reefs may have been us to better characterize the impacts lost globally overfishing has rising levels anthropogenic marine ecosystem a persistent and growing problem noise particle motion sensors in environments loss based on model sh ear services fisheries is linked declining dolphin inspired sonar provide water quality through increasing opportunities for improved sensing edward b barbier occurrence harmful algal blooms technology instrumentation offshore pollution oxygen autonomous underwater vehicles depletion hypoxia given perhaps even augmented reality coastal can rapid options human divers enhance begin up kilometers inland it important our direct experience extend continental shelf understand what at stake terms acoustic world include ocean systems with waters foregone economic benefits meters depth distinct values as ecosystems further reading found these disappear estuarine this i an overview amor...

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