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A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY ON ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS’ Clare Palmer Introduction the in which concerning ways human can and Questions beings interact with the nonhuman should natural world can be hardly said to be new. recorded human Throughout history prescriptions human behaviour towards the world concerning nonhuman have existed. with reference to restricted of time and Although periods restricted geographical locations, attempts have been made to categorise such and to consider the attitudes which prescriptions underlie them, to a would be an attempt comprehensive survey enormous task. concern here is with a much more My smaller, area, manageable and even within this area, I will not to a detailed attempt provide historical I will be to survey.’ considering, primarily, approaches environmental in the ethics found Western English-speaking world, 1 The ’environmental ethics’ is an expression used as umbrella increasingly being term to cover all kinds of moral debate human attitudes and concerning toward, the nonhuman natural world. It is in treatment of, itself a contentious since it could term, be that the use of the term argued very ’environment’ human from segregates beings the natural world the the natural world is as and suggests that significance of something which surrounds rather than as with humanbeings something independent significance, thus the moral debate. For this the been prejudicing reason, ethics’ has term’ecological some ethicists. This has its own since it can be as preferred by difficulties, interpreted to within or with ethical referring posited ecological relationships ecosystems, reading approaches out of the ecosystem. In this paper I have elected to use the term ’environmental since it is more and ethics’, popular less to than open misinterpretation but its use is not intended to the human ethics; ecological prejudice question concerning and the nonhuman beings natural world 2 Historical exist; see, for instance, Roderick Nash The surveys already Rights of Nature (University of Wisconsin Press 1979), Eugene Hargrove The Fonndrttron of Environmental Ethics -68- Downloaded from sce.sagepub.com at TEXAS A&M UNIV on January 10, 2016 that is to the the USA and the last UK, Australia, say, during thirty A further area while will not be years. which, relevant, explicitly covered in this is the of on ’animal paper range positions exclusively or ’animal issues. Several of this rights’ liberation’ historical studies exist;’ and the subject already differing philosophical approaches not here are difficult to identify. A Historical Sketch Brief The of Rachel Carson’s Silent in of 1962, publication Spring warning the to humans and to wildlife of toxic is residues, dangers pesticide widely regarded as the spark which kindled the environmental it It as is known was not until time after movement today. some this, that serious reflection about ethical issues however, philosophical raised human action in the nonhuman natural world commenced. by in first from a 1971 the conference Perhaps significant attempt springs at the of which the later to USA, University Georgia, produced papers in be 1974 as and Environmental Crisis. 1974, published Philosophy By the Scandinavian Arne Naess had in philosopher published, Inquiry his ’The 16, 1973, article Shallow and the Longrange Ecology Deep, an to be of in its Movement’, article destined peculiar importance popular appeal as the founding statement of what later became known as In the field of environmental law, deep ecology. Christopher had and later an entitled ’Should Stone, produced published essay Trees Have that ’environmental issues should be Standing?’ arguing of before federal or in the name the litigated agencies federal courts inanimate about to be and where is the objects despoiled ... inquiry in subject of public Stone’s while not outrage’.4 paper, itself contributing to to make the later debate, the substantially philosophical helped of the of and to nonhuman application langauge ’rights’ ’standing’ natural in and areas more familiar its a objects (despite origin legal rather than a context). philosophical ethical the treatment of nonhumans 1975, By questions concerning had to become more on the begun agenda. significant philosophical Peter Animal a utilitarian to Singer’s Liberation, developing approach the treatment of was the sentient With animals, published. publication 3 See E. S. Turner All Heaven in a (Michael 1964); for a collection of Rage Joseph from readings various see ed. and Animal and Human periods, Regan Singer Rights Prentice Hall The main to the moral (New 1976). two Obligations Jersey; approaches of status animals - and utilitarian based are forward most in ’rights’ put coherently Peter Anirrrnl Liberation St Albans: Paladin Granada and Singer’s (1975; Books, 1977) Tom The Animal (London: 1984). Regan’s Case for Riglits Routledge 4 Stone Should Trees Have Discus Books, 1975, (Avon ed.). Christopher Standing p.12, 69 Downloaded from sce.sagepub.com at TEXAS A&M UNIV on January 10, 2016 of this and the of work book, subsequent proliferation philosophical on of this ethical the treatment nonhuman topic, questions concerning animals were well on the to achieving the way philosophical which now which respectability they enjoy (something environmental ethics in is to general yet achieve). there was in environmental 1979, ethical interest issues By enough for to Environmental now Eugene Hargrove begin Ethics, producing the most in the field. after indisputably significant journal Shortly this, in the early 1980s, new and influential collections of essays on environmental were most a collection philosophy published, notably from the Australian National Environmental University, Philosophy, McRobbie and and another Mannison, collection, (eds. 1980) Routley also of Australian the name Elliot and Gare origin, same (eds. sharing this book studies of environmental ethics had 1983). time, By length to Robin Attfield’s The Ethics Concern begun appear. of Environmental Basil for was first in 1983. (Oxford, Blackwell) example, published From the mid 1980s to the time, research, and present publication teaching in environmental ethics has rapidly expanded. Ethical in first mooted in articles Environmental Ethics in the positions early 1980s into most notable books; crystallised argued amongst densely these Holmes Rolston’s Environmcntal Paul Ethics, Respect for Taylor’s Nature and A Lawrence to all of which Johnson’s World, Morally Deep I shall return. Several American universities both began undergraduate and courses in environmental most the State graduate ethics, notably of while Lancaster in the UK founded University Colorado; University a MA in the Environment. As environmental taught course Values and become more and a of adults questions pressing, generation young concerned with environmental issues enter it can education, higher be will be in only that there further the expected expansion teaching and interest environmental ethics. of, in, Ethics Central Debate Enviro1lmental in the Current within Questions A wide of ethical is covered the umbrella term spectrum positions by ’environmental ethics’. These draw on a of ethical positions variety from Plato and Aristotle to Mill and Moore. As one traditions, might a debate is conducted between expect, vigorous being those advocating such lie at its heart. diverse Certain approaches. key questions value The first level of debate concerns that is to the axiology; say, theory which underlies environmental ethical debate. What is A to and from where does its value come? considered be valuable, raised number of concerns are this differing by question. or all of is value Is value a creation Firstly, ’subjective’ ’objective’? human or are values ’out there’ and to be subjectivity, already than discovered rather created? This divides environmental question -70- Downloaded from sce.sagepub.com at TEXAS A&M UNIV on January 10, 2016 have to a which ethicists, some establish although attempted position lies between the two (such as Richard Sylvan’s concept of the to which I shall to ’nonjective’, return). subjectivists Secondly, important and is the ’What is value? Where is value alike, objectivists question located?’ an even wider of answers have been Here, array advocated, from attributes of individual the ranging possible living organisms as sentience to more abstract such as or (such life) qualities diversity, richness or balance. A third strand concerns the concentration or distribution such value. Are of value or is it either of degrees possible, absent? or present absolutely Straddling all these crucial axiological questions is (to use the expression in a somewhat loose way) what has been called the in naturalistic this case the invalid identification of fallacy: possibly which is as sentience or with which something (such life) something valuable. different ethicists have different is or Again, good adopted with of to terms this ways coming problem. A level of one to a second extent questions, although large dependent human on the is the more ethical. How should axiological, directly in natural act the nonhuman world, the conclusions of beings given value How does one make ethical decisions where theory? perceived values into come conflict? Should one act in order to some preserve kinds of value over others? Obviously, the environmental ethical edifice must, like any other ethical construction, be built on an two the foundation; are, However, axiological ultimately, inseparable. whilst it is just that two with the same only possible philosophers value different ethical it is theory might produce practical responses, that two with entirely probable philosophers different underlying value theories draw similar ethical might practical conclusions. One at further distinction remains to be made this point: that between ethical 111011 is 111 and ethical The central at pluralism. question issue here is it within whether is an ethical so possible, constituency large that it could include the entire planet, to arrive at a single ethical or set of to to consistent governing principle principles apply all ethical problems. Ethical monism - the conviction that such is has until dominated environmental consistency possible - recently ethics ethics as a More some indeed, however, (as whole). recently, in influential environmental ethics that no figures have contended one ethical or set of such can a principle principles possibly perform function. This has led to the of comprehensive advocacy differing ethical ’frameworks’ with to different situations. One application could for an ethical we use not, instance, which expect principle might when with a domestic cat to be suitable when with the dealing dealing extinction of species. thus introduced the which at the of the Having questions lie heart environmental ethical I shall now on to move as debate, examine, as the various different concisely possible, key positions presented by 71 Downloaded from sce.sagepub.com at TEXAS A&M UNIV on January 10, 2016
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