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A
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
ESSAY
ON
ENVIRONMENTAL
ETHICS’
Clare Palmer
Introduction
the in
which
concerning ways human can and
Questions beings
interact with the nonhuman
should natural world can be
hardly
said to be
new. recorded human
Throughout history prescriptions
human behaviour towards
the world
concerning nonhuman have
existed. with reference to restricted of time and
Although periods
restricted geographical locations, attempts have been made to
categorise such and to consider the attitudes which
prescriptions
underlie them, to a would be an
attempt comprehensive survey
enormous task.
concern
here is with a much more
My smaller, area,
manageable
and
even within this area, I will not to a detailed
attempt provide
historical I will be to
survey.’ considering, primarily, approaches
environmental in the
ethics found Western
English-speaking world,
1 The ’environmental
ethics’ is an
expression used as umbrella
increasingly being
term to cover all kinds
of moral debate human attitudes and
concerning toward,
the
nonhuman natural world. It is in
treatment of, itself a contentious since it could
term,
be that the use of the term
argued very ’environment’ human from
segregates beings
the natural
world the the natural world is as
and suggests that significance of something
which
surrounds rather than as with
humanbeings something independent significance,
thus the moral debate.
For this the been
prejudicing reason, ethics’ has
term’ecological
some ethicists. This has its own since it can be as
preferred by difficulties, interpreted
to within or with ethical
referring posited ecological
relationships ecosystems, reading
approaches out of the ecosystem. In this paper I have elected to use the term
’environmental since it is more and
ethics’, popular less to than
open misinterpretation
but its use is not intended to the human
ethics;
ecological prejudice question
concerning
and
the nonhuman
beings natural world
2 Historical exist; see, for instance, Roderick Nash The
surveys already Rights of
Nature (University of Wisconsin Press 1979), Eugene Hargrove The Fonndrttron of
Environmental Ethics
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that is to the the USA and the last
UK, Australia,
say, during thirty
A
further area while will not be
years. which, relevant, explicitly
covered in this is the of on ’animal
paper range positions exclusively
or ’animal issues. Several of this
rights’ liberation’ historical studies
exist;’ and the
subject already differing philosophical approaches
not
here are difficult to
identify.
A Historical Sketch
Brief
The of Rachel Carson’s Silent in of
1962,
publication Spring warning
the to humans and to wildlife of toxic is
residues,
dangers pesticide
widely regarded as the spark which kindled the environmental
it It
as is known was not until time after
movement today. some this,
that serious reflection about ethical issues
however, philosophical
raised human action in the nonhuman natural world commenced.
by
in
first from a 1971
the conference
Perhaps significant attempt springs
at the of which the later to
USA,
University Georgia, produced papers
in
be 1974 as and Environmental Crisis. 1974,
published Philosophy By
the Scandinavian Arne Naess had in
philosopher published, Inquiry
his ’The
16, 1973, article Shallow and the Longrange Ecology
Deep,
an to be of in its
Movement’, article destined peculiar importance
popular appeal as the founding statement of what later became
known as In the field of environmental
law,
deep ecology. Christopher
had and later an entitled ’Should
Stone, produced published essay
Trees Have that ’environmental issues should be
Standing?’ arguing
of
before federal or in the name the
litigated agencies federal courts
inanimate about to be and where is the
objects despoiled ... inquiry
in
subject of public Stone’s while not
outrage’.4 paper, itself contributing
to to make
the later debate, the
substantially philosophical helped
of the of and to nonhuman
application langauge ’rights’ ’standing’
natural in
and areas more familiar its a
objects (despite origin legal
rather than a context).
philosophical
ethical the treatment of nonhumans
1975,
By questions concerning
had to become more on the
begun agenda.
significant philosophical
Peter Animal a utilitarian to
Singer’s Liberation,
developing approach
the treatment of was the
sentient With
animals, published. publication
3 See E. S. Turner All Heaven in a (Michael 1964); for a collection of
Rage Joseph
from
readings various see ed. and Animal and Human
periods, Regan Singer Rights
Prentice Hall The main to the moral
(New 1976). two
Obligations Jersey; approaches
of
status animals - and
utilitarian based are forward most in
’rights’ put coherently
Peter Anirrrnl Liberation St
Albans: Paladin Granada and
Singer’s (1975; Books, 1977)
Tom The Animal (London: 1984).
Regan’s Case for Riglits Routledge
4 Stone Should Trees Have Discus
Books, 1975,
(Avon ed.).
Christopher Standing p.12,
69
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of this and the of work
book, subsequent proliferation philosophical
on of
this ethical the treatment nonhuman
topic, questions concerning
animals were well on the to achieving the
way philosophical
which now which
respectability they enjoy (something environmental
ethics in is to
general yet achieve).
there
was in environmental
1979, ethical interest issues
By enough
for to Environmental now
Eugene Hargrove begin Ethics,
producing
the most in the field. after
indisputably significant journal Shortly this,
in the early 1980s, new and influential collections of essays on
environmental were most a collection
philosophy published, notably
from the
Australian National Environmental
University, Philosophy,
McRobbie and and another
Mannison, collection,
(eds. 1980)
Routley
also of
Australian the name Elliot and Gare
origin, same (eds.
sharing
this book studies of environmental ethics had
1983). time,
By length
to Robin Attfield’s The Ethics Concern
begun appear. of Environmental
Basil for was first in 1983.
(Oxford, Blackwell) example, published
From the mid 1980s to the time, research, and
present publication
teaching in environmental ethics has rapidly expanded. Ethical
in
first mooted in articles Environmental Ethics in the
positions early
1980s into most notable
books;
crystallised argued amongst
densely
these Holmes Rolston’s Environmcntal Paul
Ethics, Respect for
Taylor’s
Nature and A
Lawrence to all of which
Johnson’s World,
Morally Deep
I shall
return. Several American universities both
began undergraduate
and courses in environmental most the State
graduate ethics, notably
of while Lancaster in the UK founded
University Colorado; University
a MA in the Environment. As environmental
taught course Values and
become more and a of adults
questions pressing, generation young
concerned with environmental issues enter it can
education,
higher
be will be in
only that there further the
expected expansion teaching
and interest environmental ethics.
of, in,
Ethics
Central Debate Enviro1lmental
in the Current within
Questions
A wide of ethical is covered the umbrella term
spectrum positions by
’environmental ethics’. These draw on a of ethical
positions variety
from Plato and Aristotle to Mill and Moore. As one
traditions, might
a debate is conducted between
expect, vigorous being those advocating
such lie at its heart.
diverse Certain
approaches. key questions
value
The first level of debate concerns that is to the
axiology; say,
theory which underlies environmental ethical debate. What is
A
to and from where does its value come?
considered be
valuable,
raised
number of concerns are this
differing by question.
or all of
is value Is value a creation
Firstly, ’subjective’ ’objective’?
human or are values ’out there’ and to be
subjectivity, already
than
discovered rather created? This divides environmental
question
-70-
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have to a which
ethicists, some establish
although attempted position
lies between the two (such as Richard Sylvan’s concept of the
to which I shall to
’nonjective’, return). subjectivists
Secondly, important
and is the ’What is value? Where is value
alike,
objectivists question
located?’ an even wider of answers have been
Here, array advocated,
from attributes of individual
the
ranging possible living organisms
as sentience to more abstract such as
or
(such life) qualities diversity,
richness or balance. A third strand concerns the concentration or
distribution such value. Are of value or is it either
of degrees possible,
absent?
or
present absolutely
Straddling all these crucial axiological questions is (to use the
expression in a somewhat loose way) what has been called the
in
naturalistic this case the invalid identification of
fallacy: possibly
which is as sentience or with which
something (such life) something
valuable. different ethicists have different
is or Again,
good adopted
with
of to terms this
ways coming problem.
A level of one to a
second extent
questions, although large dependent
human
on the is the more ethical. How should
axiological, directly
in natural
act the nonhuman world, the conclusions of
beings given
value How does one make ethical decisions where
theory? perceived
values into
come conflict? Should one act in order to some
preserve
kinds of value over others? Obviously, the environmental ethical
edifice must, like any other ethical construction, be built on an
two
the
foundation; are, However,
axiological ultimately,
inseparable.
whilst it is just that two with the same
only possible philosophers
value different ethical it is
theory might produce practical responses,
that two with
entirely probable philosophers different underlying
value theories draw similar ethical
might practical conclusions.
One at
further distinction remains to be made this point: that
between ethical 111011 is 111 and ethical The central at
pluralism. question
issue here is it within
whether is an ethical so
possible, constituency
large that it could include the entire planet, to arrive at a single
ethical or set of to to
consistent
governing principle principles apply
all ethical problems. Ethical monism - the conviction that such
is has until dominated environmental
consistency possible - recently
ethics ethics as a More some
indeed, however,
(as whole). recently,
in
influential environmental ethics that no
figures have contended
one ethical or set of such
can a
principle principles possibly
perform
function. This has led to the of
comprehensive advocacy differing
ethical ’frameworks’ with to different situations. One
application
could for an ethical we use
not, instance, which
expect principle might
when with a domestic cat to be suitable when with the
dealing dealing
extinction of
species.
thus introduced the which at the of the
Having questions lie heart
environmental ethical I shall now on to
move as
debate, examine,
as the various different
concisely possible, key positions presented
by
71
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