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lecture notes on environmental and natural resources economics cesaltina maria pacheco pires april 1998 contents 1 introduction 5 1 1 howare economyand natural environment related 5 1 2 sustainability 7 ...

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          Lecture Notes on Environmental and Natural Resources
                        Economics
                    Cesaltina Maria Pacheco Pires
                         April 1998
                     Contents
                     1 Introduction                                                                                          5
                        1.1   Howare economyand natural environment related? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                 5
                        1.2   Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     7
                        1.3   Issues in Environmental Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          9
                              1.3.1   Environment and Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           9
                              1.3.2   Environmental Degradation and its Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .             9
                              1.3.3   The Global Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          12
                     2 Valuation Methods                                                                                   14
                        2.1   Fundamentals of Environmental Valuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           14
                              2.1.1   Environmental Impact Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           15
                              2.1.2   Concepts in Welfare Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         16
                              2.1.3   Welfare Economics under Risk and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            20
                              2.1.4   Bene…t Cost Analysis and Discounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          25
                        2.2   Total Economic Value and Valuation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            27
                              2.2.1   Total Economic Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        27
                              2.2.2   Methods for Measuring Economic Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            30
                        2.3   Productivity Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          33
                              2.3.1   Related Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       35
                              2.3.2   Applications     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  36
                        2.4   Contingent Valuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      37
                              2.4.1   Steps in CVM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        37
                              2.4.2   Problems with CVM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         40
                              2.4.3   Applications     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  41
                        2.5   Travel Cost Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        42
                              2.5.1   Theorethical Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        42
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                               2.5.2   Individual Travel Cost Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          43
                               2.5.3   Concentric Zone Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          44
                               2.5.4   Simple Travel Cost Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          45
                               2.5.5   Multiple Site Travel Cost Method         . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   49
                               2.5.6   Generalized Travel Cost Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           50
                               2.5.7   Hedonic Travel Cost Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           50
                               2.5.8   Problems with Travel Cost Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           51
                               2.5.9   Applications     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   52
                         2.6   Hedonic Price Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         52
                               2.6.1   Theoretical Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        53
                               2.6.2   First Step - Hedonic Price Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          54
                               2.6.3   Step Two - Computation of Marginal Values of Attributes . . . . . . . . .              56
                               2.6.4   Step Three - Estimate the Demand Curve of the Characteristic . . . . . .               57
                               2.6.5   Problems with Hedonic Price Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .             59
                               2.6.6   Applications     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   60
                         2.7   Repeat Sale Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         60
                         2.8   Methods to Value Risks to Life and Health          . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   61
                               2.8.1   Valuing Reduced Mortality Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           63
                               2.8.2   Valuing Reduced Morbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          67
                         2.9   Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     70
                     3 Economics of Environmental Regulation                                                                  71
                         3.1   Types of Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      71
                               3.1.1   De…nition and Taxonomy of Externalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            72
                         3.2   TheOptimalLevel of Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           73
                         3.3   Decentralized Solutions to the Externality Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           76
                               3.3.1   Bargaining Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        76
                               3.3.2   Liability Laws     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   78
                               3.3.3   Moral Suasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        79
                         3.4   ABrief Description Some Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            79
                               3.4.1   Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      79
                               3.4.2   Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      79
                         3.5   Criteria for Selecting Environmental Policy Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .             79
                                                                          2
                         3.6   Commandand Control Policies: Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .               81
                               3.6.1   Introduction     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   81
                               3.6.2   The Economics of Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           82
                               3.6.3   The Economics of Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           86
                         3.7   Incentive Based Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       86
                               3.7.1   Emission Charges or Emission taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           87
                               3.7.2   Abatement Subsidies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        94
                               3.7.3    Transferable Pollution Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        96
                               3.7.4   Uncertainty and the Choice of Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
                     4 Natural Resources                                                                                     105
                         4.1   Property Rights Regimes        . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
                               4.1.1   Taxonomy of Property Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
                               4.1.2   Desirable Properties of Property Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
                               4.1.3   Common-Property vs Open-Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
                               4.1.4   Open Access Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
                               4.1.5   Common Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
                         4.2   Land Rents,Rent Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
                               4.2.1   Quality of Land and Rents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
                               4.2.2   Location and Rents       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
                         4.3   Nonrenewable Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
                               4.3.1   The Theory of the Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
                               4.3.2   Extraction by a Competitive Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
                               4.3.3   Extensions of Previous Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
                         4.4   Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
                               4.4.1   SomeBiological Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
                               4.4.2   When Should Forest be Harvested? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
                               4.4.3   Government Policies and Optimal Timber Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
                               4.4.4   Concessions of Public Forest       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
                               4.4.5   Deforestration     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
                         4.5   Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
                               4.5.1   Harvest Production Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
                               4.5.2   Harvest Under Open Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
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...Lecture notes on environmental and natural resources economics cesaltina maria pacheco pires april contents introduction howare economyand environment related sustainability issues in growth degradation its causes the global valuation methods fundamentals of impact assessment concepts welfare under risk uncertainty bene t cost analysis discounting total economic value for measuring productivity based applications contingent steps cvm problems with travel method theorethical foundations individual concentric zone model simple multiple site generalized hedonic price theoretical first step equation two computation marginal values attributes three estimate demand curve characteristic repeat sale to risks life health valuing reduced mortality morbidity regulation types pollutants de nition taxonomy externalities theoptimallevel pollution decentralized solutions externality problem bargaining solution liability laws moral suasion abrief description some instruments taxes standards criteria s...

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