Excel Sample Sheet 41546 | Aug 30 Website References

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Sheet 1: Articles

References
Type
Methodology
Method summary
Population
Population Jobs
Population summary
Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3
topic 4
Keywords
Journal type
Journal
Year
Abstract

Kalleberg, A., & Marsden, P. (2005). Externalizing organizational activities: Where and how US establishments use employment intermediaries, Socio-Economic Review, 3, 389–416.
empirical
survey data collected in 1996–7 by the second National Organizations Study (NOS-II)
quanttitative (survey)
mid-sized and large organizations
N/A
organizations
When and how US organizations externalize org activities
Outsourcing

N/A
peer reviewed
Socio-Economic Review

Organizations are increasingly externalizing work activities, but vary as to where and how they do so. Using a US employer survey, we examine within- and between-organization differences in the use of employment intermediaries such as temporary help agencies and contract companies, in whether external workers from these intermediaries supplement on-payroll employees or exclusively perform activities, and in the exercise of supervisory control over external workers. Organizations use workers from employment intermediaries more often in work activities separable from the core workflow. External workers tend to supplement regular workers engaged in more central activities and exclusively perform more peripheral ones; employers are more apt to supervise external workers for more central activities. Small, private sector employers are more likely to use employment intermediaries. When large organizations do use external workers, they tend to use them in a supplementary rather than exclusive way, and to exercise supervisory control over them.

Allan, P. (2002). The contingent workforce: challenges and new directions. American Business Review, 20(2), 103.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
contingent work challenges
contingent work trends

N/A
peer reviewed
American Business Review

he forces and trends described in the first part of this paper make it likely that contingent workers will remain a significant component of the workforce. It is also likely that there will be significant changes in the contingent workforce and its deployment. The use of independent contractors will be greatly affected by the Microsoft decision and by litigation against other employers of independent contractors. The sue of contractors may be curtailed and the ways in which they are employed will be modified. The trends described in this paper present important challenges to the contingent workforce and point to probable new directions it will take. While it is impossible to predict the actual changes that will occur, what is certain is that the contingent workforce of the future and employer use of contingents will be different from what they are today.

Allan, P., & Sienko, S. (1998). Job motivations of professional and technical contingent workers: Are they different from permanent workers?. Journal of Employment Counseling, 35(4), 169-178.
empirical
Survey
quanttitative (survey)
permanent and contingent workers employed same types of jobs in a large organizational unit of a major U.S. telecommunicatios company.
programmers, statistical
analysts, engineers, and clerical and administrative support staff
contingent and permanent workers
Contingent workers motivation

N/A
peer reviewed
Journal of Employment Counseling

In the United States and Europe, the fastest growing segments of the temporary or contingent workforce have been In professional and technical fields. Yet little is known of the motivations of these workers. Accordingly, the authors administered the Hackman and Oldham (1980) Job Diagnostic Survey to professional and technical contingent and permanent employees of a major U.S. telecommunications company. Contingent workers had higher motivation potential scores, scored significantly higher in task identity and feedback from the job, and scored higher In combined need strength than did the permanent workers. The findings suggest that contingents can be a rich source of motivated workers.

Alvesson, M. (2001). Knowledge work: Ambiguity, image and identity. Human relations, 54(7), 863-886.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Image and identity in knowledge work
idnetity regulation in knowledge work
ambiguity in knowledge work

ambiguity / identity / knowledge-intensive companies /
professional services/ rhetoric
peer reviewed
Human relations

This article takes a sceptical view of the functionalist understanding of the nature and significance of ‘knowledge’ in so-called knowledgeintensive companies. The article emphasizes the slipperiness of the
concept of knowledge, the ambiguity of knowledge, its role in whatis constructed as knowledge work and the evaluation of work outcomes. Given this ambiguity, the management of rhetoric, image and
social processes appears crucial in organizations of this kind. Difficulties in demonstrating competence and performance – as well as the significance of producing the right impression – make work identity
difficult to secure. However, this is a key element in doing knowledge work. Successful rhetoric, image production and orchestration of social interactions call for the regulation of employee identities.

Ammons, S. K., & Markham, W. T. (2004). Working at home: Experiences of skilled white collar workers. Sociological Spectrum, 2, 191–238.
empirical
semistructured
interviews
Qualitative (interview)
14 skilled
white collar workers who work full time at home.
freelance writer, computer-related
work, consultants, one was a computer programmer,
databases Most were self-employed, but three were telecommuters.
skilled
white collar workers
reasons for working from home
problems of isolation
distractions and temptations facing at-home workers/ home/work boundarie/workaholism

N/A
peer reviewed
Sociological Spectrum

Based on a comprehensive literature review and detailed semistructured interviews with skilled workers who work at home, this article explores six research areas: reasons for working at home, the creation and maintenance of home/work boundaries, problems of isolation, distractions and temptations facing at-home workers, workaholism, and gender differences. The results indicate that white collar workers usually choose to work at home to reduce work/family conflicts or because of factors in the external labor market. Problems of creating and maintaining home/work boundaries, isolation, distractions and temptations at home, and workaholism do exist, but there was evidence that they may have been exaggerated in previous writing about at-home work. A combination of gender and life course stage better predicts differences in the experiences of the interviewees than does gender alone

Ang, S., & Slaughter, S. A. (2001). Work outcomes and job design for contract versus permanent information systems professionals on software development teams. MIS Quarterly, 25, 321.
empirical
Survey (Study 1) and interview (Study 2)
mixed methods
contract and permanent professionals on software development teams in a large transportation company.
software development

comparing attitudes of contractors and permanent workers
comparing attitudes of supervisers towards permanent and contract workers
job design for contractors VS. permanent workers
interface between standard and non-standard workers
IS contracting/ IS staffing issues/ management of IS/ IS project teams
peer reviewed
MIS Quarterly

Organizations have significantly increased their use of contracting in information systems (IS), hiring contractors to work with permanent professionals. Based on theories of social exchange and social comparison, we hypothesize differences in work attitudes, behaviors, and performance across the two groups, and evaluate our hypotheses with a sequential mixed-methods design. Our first study surveys contract and permanent professionals on software development teams in a large transportation company. Our second study involves in-depth interviews with contract and permanent IS professionals in three organizations. We find support for many of our hypotheses but also some surprising results. Contrary to our predictions, contractors perceive a more favorable work environment than permanent professionals but exhibit lower in-role and extra-role behaviors than their permanent counterparts. Supervisors perceive their contract subordinates as lower-performing and less loyal, obedient, and trustworthy. In-depth interviews help to explain these findings. Job design emerges as an important factor influencing contractors' work attitudes, behaviors, and performance. Supervisors restrict the scope of contractors' jobs, limiting their job behaviors and performance. To compensate, permanent professionals are assigned considerably enlarged job scopes, leading to their lower perceptions of the work environment. We propose a theoretical model that embraces job design in explaining differences in work outcomes for contract versus permanent professionals on software development teams. The results from our study imply that organizations should carefully design and balance the jobs of their contractors and permanent employees to improve attitudes, behaviors, and workplace performance.

Arcidiacono, D., Gandini, A., & Pais, I. (2018). Sharing what? The ‘sharing economy’in the sociological debate, 275-288.
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Sharing economy
expansion of research on sharing economy
sociology literature contribution to sharing economy literature

collaborative economy, on demand economy, sharing economy, systematic review
peer reviewed
the sociological debate

This essay introduces the subject and interpretative perspective of the monograph ‘Unboxing the Sharing Economy’, and is divided into three parts. The first part illustrates the evolution of the concept of the ‘sharing economy’ and the main analytical implications. The second part outlines the key findings of a systematic review of the literature, which indicates both that academic research on the sharing economy has expanded considerably since 2013, and that sociology’s contribution to this debate remains underdeveloped and somewhat incoherent. The final part both locates the contributions to the monograph in the context of other studies and summarizes its content.

Ashford, S. J., Caza, B. B., & Reid, E. M. (2018). From surviving to thriving in the gig economy: A research agenda for individuals in the new world of work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 38, 23-41.
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Success in gig work
Challenges in gig work
research agenda
Agency
N/A
peer reviewed
Research in Organizational Behavior

How work gets done has changed fundamentally in recent decades, with a growing number of people working independently, outside of organizations in a style of work quite different from that assumed by many organizational behavior theories. To remain relevant, our research on individual work behaviors and the capabilities that enable them must also adapt to this new world of work, the so-called “gig economy.” We first describe the predictable challenges that individuals confront when working in this manner, including remaining viable, staying organized, maintaining identity, sustaining relationships, and coping emotionally. We then articulate a research agenda that pushes our field to focus on the specific capabilities and behaviors that enable people to manage these challenges effectively so as to survive or thrive in this new world of work. Foregrounding individual agency, we articulate the work and relational behaviors necessary for such thriving, and the cognitive and emotional capabilities that undergird them.

Ashford, S. J., George, E., & Blatt, R. (2007). 2 old assumptions, new work: The opportunities and challenges of research on nonstandard employment. The Academy of Management Annals, 1(1), 65-117.
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Success in gig work
Challenges in gig work
managing non-standard work
interface between standard and non-standard workers

peer reviewed
Academy of management annals
2007
We review the literature on nonstandard work with three aims: to portray the breadth and nature of the research and theorizing to date, to document the challenges and opportunities this domain poses to both practice and theory, and to bring the study of nonstandard work more to the center stage of micro-OB. After defining nonstandard work and documenting scholarly interest in it, we discuss the literature on the experience of nonstandard workers, on managing the nonstandard workforce, as well as that on managing the interface between standard and nonstandard workers. We analyze the themes that are raised in these literatures and point to new research questions that need to be addressed. Research on nonstandard work can enhance our understanding of the nature of work, the relationship between individuals and organizations, and how organizations and individuals can undertake these new work forms.

Bailey, D., & Kurland, N. B. (2002). A review of telework research: Findings, new directions, and lessons for the study of modern work. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 383–400.
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Who teleworks
motivation for telework
firm level predictors of telework
telework outcomes
N/A
peer reviewed
Journal of Organizational Behavior
2002
Telework has inspired research in disciplines ranging from transportation and urban planning to ethics, law, sociology, and organizational studies. In our review of this literature, we seek answers to three questions: who participates in telework, why they do, and what happens when they do? Who teleworks remains elusive, but research suggests that male professionals and female clerical workers predominate. Notably, work-related factors like managers’ willingness are most predictive of which employees will telework. Employees’ motivations for teleworking are also unclear, as commonly perceived reasons such as commute reduction and family obligations do not appear instrumental. On the firms’ side, managers’ reluctance, forged by concerns about cost and control and bolstered by little perceived need, inhibits the creation of telework programmes. As for outcomes, little clear evidence exists that telework increases job satisfaction and productivity, as it is often asserted to do. We suggest three steps for future research may provide richer insights: consider group and organizational level impacts to understand who telework affects, reconsider why people telework, and emphasize theory-building and links to existing organizational theories. We conclude with lessons learned from the telework literature that may be relevant to research on new work forms and workplaces

Baines, S. (1999). Servicing the media: freelancing, teleworking and ‘enterprising’ careers. New Technology, Work and Employment, 14(1), 18-31.
empirical
Survey
quanttitative (survey)
The freelance NUJ members
media freelancers
freelancers
insecurity in gig work
gig workers weakness in the market
dependency on one organization
consequences of self-employment
N/A
peer reviewed
New Technology, Work and Employment,
1999
This article examines the working lives of people offering services to the media on a freelance basis. Almost all work from home using information and communication technologies but isolation in the home is not the norm as most maintain extensive personal networks in the industry. Nevertheless, popular imagery of the ‘electronic cottage’ and the ‘virtual organisation’ only superficially capture their experiences. Insecurity and weakness in the market are suggested by histories of redundancy and dependence on single client organisations including former employers.

Baines, S. (2002). New technologies and old ways of working in the home of the self‐employed teleworker. New Technology, Work and Employment, 17(2), 89-101.
empirical
interview
qualitative (interview)
Creative media workers
media freelancers
freelancers
Job quality in gig work
micro-enterprise
work-home boundaries
consequences of self-employment
N/A
peer reviewed
New Technology, Work and Employment,
2002
Home‐based micro‐enterprises involving information and communications technologies are associated with the new, entrepreneurial economy of the twenty‐first century. The research reported in this paper suggests that if such ‘new’ ways of working become more widespread the results may not only be harsh for many individuals and households but damaging overall for the quality of working life

Baines, S., & Gelder, U. (2003). What is family friendly about the workplace in the home? The case of self-employed parents and their children. New Technology, Work, & Employment, 18, 223–234.
empirical
interview
qualitative (interview)
workers and their families
45 adults and 22 children and young people
small business owners/ self employed
parents
self employed parents and their families
family- friendliness of self-empliyment
micro-enterprise
work-home boundaries
consequences of self-employment
N/A
peer reviewed
New Technology, Work and Employment,
2003
This article draws upon the narratives of self-employed parents, their partners and children in order to examine the ‘family friendliness’ of making the home a site of paid work. While not fitting narrow definitions of ‘teleworker’ the subjects daily confronted the use of space in their homes, and access to technologies there.

Barley, S. R., & Kunda, G. (2001). Bringing work back in. Organization science, 12(1), 76-95.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Research agenda for studying postbureaucratic organizations
methodological requirements

Organization Theory; Field Methods; Networks; Action; Grounded Theor
peer reviewed
Organization Science
2001
In this essay we argue that organization theory’s effort to make
sense of postbureaucratic organizing is hampered by a dearth
of detailed studies of work. We review the history of organization theory to show that, in the past, studies of work provided
an empirical foundation for theories of bureaucracy, and explain
how such research became marginalized or ignored. We then
discuss methodological requirements for reintegrating work
studies into organization theory and indicate what the conceptual payoffs of such integration might be. These payoffs include
breaking new conceptual ground, resolving theoretical puzzles,
envisioning organizing processes, and revitalizing old concepts.

Barley, S. R., & Kunda, G. (2006). Contracting: A new form of professional practice. Academy of Management Perspectives, 19, 1–19.
empirical
ethnography
qualitative
contractors
technical contractors
contractors
employment relations
ocuupational organizaing
Itinerant identity
identity in gig work
N/A

Academy of Management Perspectives
2006
Contract work and outsourcing represent widely acknowledged manifestations of the groundswell of economic change that is shaking the foundations of work and employment in the United States. While these emerging forms of employment have become harbingers of new ways of working, they remain poorly understood; efforts to explain their emergence and significance have suffered from an excess of ideology and a dearth of data. Stephen Barley and Gideon Kunda undertook an ethnography of technical contractors to produce a detailed, balanced, and accurate depiction of how contractors structure and interpret their experience. Their study documents the social dynamics of skilled "contingent labor," a term economists and sociologists now use for an array of short-term work arrangements. Their goal was to understand how employment relations were changing at the dawn of the 21s' century. Closely studying contractors' everyday lives provided a strategic vantage point for viewing, evaluating, and perhaps even shaping changes taking place in the U.S. and global economies. As they set out to explore the world of technical contracting, Barley and Kunda were confronted with an unexpected profile of contractors: these were itinerant experts and social pioneers who partook of a way of life and a culture of work that challenges the prevailing theories and entrenched practices of employment. After an account of the exigencies of technical contracting, Barley and Kunda discuss contingent work within the context of the American industrial landscape and in light of institutionalist and free market perspectives. They also discuss contingent labor as it relates to the way in which professions and occupations are organized. Specifically, they argue that contracting directs our attention to a resurgence of occupational organizing in the wake of bureaucracy's retreat and the free market's advance. They suggest what a renewed appreciation for occupational dynamics could mean

Barley, S. R., Bechky, B. A., & Milliken, F. J. (2017). The changing nature of work: Careers, identities, and work lives in the 21st century. Academy of Management Discoveries, 2, 111-115.
Theoretical (from the editors)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Gig work trends
research agenda

peer reviewed
Academy of Management Discoveries
2017
Few people would deny that the nature of work and employment has changed over the last four decades, not only in the United States but in many countries worldwide. Moreover, the nature of work is likely to continue to change as we move further into the 21st century. Consequently, it is surprising how little organization and management studies have had to say about the phenomenon. Our field’s lack of attention to the ways in which work is changing is problematic because organization studies and organizational behavior grew out of industrial sociology and industrial and organizational psychology in the 1960s and 1970s. Both bodies of research were firmly rooted in the study of work in large organizations. For example, the classics of industrial sociology, such as Walker and Guest’s (1952) and Chinoy’s (1955) studies of automobile plants, Gouldner’s (1954) study of a gypsum mine, Dalton’s (1950) study of managers, and Blau’s (1955) study of a social service agency were field accounts of routine work in organizations. In organizational psychology, the roots of job design lay in field surveys of workers’ practices and attitudes toward their jobs (Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Hertzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Seeman, 1959). Together this body of work sought to elaborate Weber’s theory of bureaucracy and, in the process, gave birth to modern organizational theory.

Barsness, Z. I., Diekmann, K. A., & Seidel, M. D. L. (2005). Motivation and opportunity: The role of remote work, demographic dissimilarity, and social network centrality in impression management. Academy of Management Journal, 48, 401–419.
empirical
Survey
quanttitative (survey)
pairs of subordinates and their immediate supervi sors
an Internet com
merce firm members
remote and non-remote workers
remote work
demographic dissimilarity in remote work
social network centrality inremote work
Impression management in remote work
N/A
peer reviewed
Academy of management journal
2005
his study examined relationships among remote work, demographic dissimilarity,
social network centrality, and the use and effectiveness of impression management
behaviors. In our findings, a higher proportion of time spent working remotely from
supervisors increased the frequency of supervisor- and job-focused impression man
agement, but reduced social network centrality decreased job-focused impression
management. Social network centrality moderated the relationships between job
focused impression management and both remote work and sex dissimilarity. Sex
dissimilarity intensified a negative association between job-focused impression man
agement and performance appraisal. Both sex dissimilarity and network centrality
enhanced the positive association between supervisor-focused impression manage
ment and performance appraisal.

Bartel, C. A., Wrzesniewski, A., & Wiesenfeld, B. M. (2012). Knowing where you stand: Physical isolation, perceived respect, and organizational identification among virtual employees. Organization Science, 23, 743-757.
empirical
survey
quanttitative (survey)
recent hires in the consulting services division of a large technology firm
consultant
remote workers
Isolation in remote work
organizational identification in remote work
perceived respect in org

organizational identification; virtual work; telecommuting; respect; social status; isolation; physical context
peer reviewed
Organization science
2012
This research investigates the relationship between virtual employees' degree of physical isolation and their perceived respect in the organization. Respect is an identity-based status perception that reflects the extent to which one is included and valued as a member of the organization. We hypothesize that the degree of physical isolation is negatively associated with virtual employees' perceived respect and that this relationship explains the lower organizational identification among more physically isolated virtual employees. In two field studies using survey methods, we find that perceived respect is negatively associated with the degree of physical isolation, and respect mediates the relationship between physical isolation and organizational identification. These effects hold for shorter- and longer-tenured employees alike. Our research contributes to the virtual work literature by drawing attention to physical isolation and the important but neglected role of status perceptions in shaping virtual employees' organizational identification. We also contribute to the literature on perceived respect by demonstrating how respect is affected by the physical context of work.

Baruch, Y. (2000). Teleworking: Benefits and pitfalls as perceived by professionals and managers. New Technology, Work, & Employment, 15, 34–49.
empirical
interview
qualitative
teleworkers in five organizations

teleworking impact on effectiveness,
teleworking impact on quality of working life,
teleworking impact on and family life.

N/A
peer reviewed
New technology, work, and employment
2002
This study explores how teleworking is perceived by employees and highlights its possible benefits and pitfalls. Interviews with sixty‐two teleworkers in five UK organisations provide a comprehensive view on this mode of work. In particular the study examines teleworking impact on effectiveness, quality of working life, and family life.

Baruch, Y. (2001). The status of research on teleworking and an agenda for future research. International Journal of Management Reviews, 3, 113–129.
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
state of the art
research agenda
antecedents and outcomes of telework

N/A
peer reviewed

2001
Teleworking is a relatively new mode of alternative work arrangements. During its short life, the study of teleworking gained considerable attention in the literature for both its academic relevance and its practical implications formanagement. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the developments in this area, studying the nature of teleworking, its antecedents, processes and outcomes. Different models and perspectives are presented and analysed with emphasis shared between both positive and negative aspects. Directions for future research on teleworking issues, as well as recommendations for a new research agenda, are offered within a framework of Why, What and How to explore the future of teleworking.

Bauer, T., & Truxillo, D. (2000). Temp-to-permanent employees: A longitudinal study of stress and selection success. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 337–346.
empirical
longitudinal survey
quanttitative (longitudinal survey)
Temp-to-Permanent Employees
data-entry and clerical workers
hope workers
Stress in temporary work
individual factors impact on stress

N/A
peer reviewed
Journal of Occupational Health Psychology
2000
Temp-to-permanent employees are temporary workers who have the opportunity to become permanent employees after a specific amount of time (e.g., generally after a 3- to 12-month period of trial work). The authors predicted that temporary worker individual differences, self-monitoring, tolerance for ambiguity, and role adjustment are related to temporary worker physiological stress and to whether temporary employees are offered permanent employment. Longitudinal data collection (pre- and postentry) resulted in data from 136 temp-to-permanent employees. Tolerance for ambiguity and role adjustment were found to be related to temporary worker stress and selection success. Self-monitoring was related to selection success for workers in an extended probationary period. These results suggest the need for further exploration and application of models of stress in understanding factors related to temporary worker success

Bechky, B. A. (2011). Making organizational theory work: Institutions, occupations, and negotiated orders. Organization Science, 22, 1157-1167.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
occupations
occupations as institutions
occupations as negotiated orders
reserch agenda for thoerizing occupational studies
work; occupations; institutions; professions; negotiated order
peer reviewed
Organization science
2011
I n this essay I argue that organizational theorizing would benefit from incorporating a richer understanding of work and occupations. To demonstrate how, I turn to recent literature analyzing inhabited institutions, occupations as institutions, and occupations as negotiated orders. I explore the theoretical and methodological implications of these approaches to show how they challenge some of our more abstract images of organizations. They do so by grounding their theoretical frameworks in work practices and interaction, interpretation and meaning, and understandings of occupational membership.

Bendapudi, V., Mangum, S. L., Tansky, J. W., & Fisher, M. M. (2003). Nonstandard employment arrangements: A proposed typology and policy planning framework. Human Resource Planning, 26, 24–40
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Policy
Necessity of policy intervention for non-standard work
social capital formation
public policy intervention
N/A
peer reviewed
Human Resource Planning
2003
There is widespread concern that laws and policies designed for the standard (e.g., full-time) employment model are inadequate in the face of nonstandard employment. Nonstandard employment includes "contingent employment," employment not anticipated to be of more than a year's duration, as well as the "alternative employment arrangements" of independent contracting, on-call work, temporary help agencies, and workers provided by contract firms. This article addresses the heterogeneity across nonstandard work and workers and develops a segmentation typology to highlight the different needs and expectations of nonstandard workers. The typology is used to examine the relative roles of public policy and social capital--the network of social relationships--in addressing the challenges of nonstandard employment. Public policy initiatives in the nonstandard employment arena must be tailored to employee and job characteristics

Bennett, D. & Hennekam, S. (2018). Self-authorship and creative industries workers’ career decision-making. Human Relations, 71, 1454–1477.
empirical
mixed method (survey and thematic coding)
qualitative and quantitative
Creative workers
artists
Creative workers
Career decsion making
precarious identity
self- authorship
Creative workers
artists, arts careers, career aspirations, career development, gender, precarious work
peer reviewed
Human relations
2018
Career decision-making is arguably at its most complex within professions where work
is precarious and career calling is strong. This article reports from a study that examined
the career decision-making of creative industries workers, for whom career decisions
can impact psychological well-being and identity just as much as they impact individuals’
work and career. The respondents were 693 creative industries workers who used a
largely open-ended survey to create in-depth reflections on formative moments and
career decision-making. Analysis involved the theoretical model of self-authorship,
which provides a way of understanding how people employ their sense of self to make
meaning of their experiences. The self-authorship process emerged as a complex,
non-linear and consistent feature of career decision-making. Theoretical contributions
include a non-linear view of self-authorship that exposes the authorship of visible and
covert multiple selves prompted by both proactive and reactive identity work.

Benson, J. (1998). Dual commitment: Contract workers in Australian manufacturing enterprises. Journal of Management Studies, 35, 355–375.
empirical
Survey
qualitative
Engineering contractors
Engineering
contractors
Impact of outsourcing on employee commitment
outsourcing
contingent work commitment
dual commitment
N/A
peer reviewed
Journal of Management Studies
1998
A growing trend in employment practices is for firms to concentrate on their core
functions and outsource peripheral activities. While an assessment of the economic
bene®ts of outsourcing has been the subject of a number of research projects, little
attempt has been made to evaluate the impact of such practices on employee
commitment. This is the purpose of this paper. The central questions are can
employees be committed to their employer and to their host enterprise, and what
determines each form of commitment? The research is based on a survey of
employees working for a major labour hire ®rm. The key ®nding of the research is
that employees can have a dual commitment, although di�erent factors in¯uence
commitment to the employer and to the host ®rm.

Brocklehurst, M. (2001). Power, identity, and new technology homework: Implications for 'new forms' of organizing. Organization Studies, 22, 445–466.
empirical
Case study
qualitative
remote workers from a computer
computer related
remote workers
power (Gidden and Foucault)
identity
identity regulation
Habit and identity
information and communication technologies, homework, telework, power, control, identity, time, space
peer reviewed
organization studies
2001
This paper reports on research which tracked the experience of a group of professional workers as they moved from being conventional office workers to becoming homeworkers where they used the new information and communication technologies (ICT's), but remained as full-time salaried employees. The paper evaluates the value of Giddens's conceptualization of power, identity and time/space in explaining the consequences of this move and compares his approach to post modem theorizations, which draw on the work of Foucault and Lash and Urry. The paper concludes with the view that such a form of organization is neither inherently corrosive of character (Sennett 1998) nor does it provide a space for aesthetic reflexivity (Lash and Urry 1994). What has yet to develop is a sense of `the other' within the emerging discourse serving to articulate this new form of organizing.

Brockner, J., Tyler, T. R., & Cooper-Schneider, R. (1992). The influence of prior commitment to an institution on reactions to perceived unfairness: The higher they are, the harder they fall. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 241–261.
empirical
Survey
quanttitative (survey)
Laid off organizational workers
financial service
Laid off organizational workers
Impact of commitment on perception of fairness in the process of layoffs
commitment
layoff
Perceived
Unfairnes
N/A
peer reviewed
Administrative Science Quarterly
1992
The influence of individuals' prior commitment to an institution on their reactions to the perceived fairness of decisions rendered by the institution was examined in two different field settings. The first study examined how layoff survivors' work attitudes and behaviors after the layoff changed as a function of (1) their level of organizational commitment prior to the layoff and (2) their perceptions of the fairness of the decision rule used to keep certain employees and lay off others. In the second study, we explored how citizens' commitment to legal authorities changed as a function of their initial level of commitment and their perceptions of how fairly they were treated in their recent encounters with legal authorities. Consistent results emerged across these two settings: The most negative reactions were exhibited by those who previously felt highly committed but who felt that they were treated unfairly by the institution. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Broschak, J. P., & Davis-Blake, A. (2006). Mixing standard work and nonstandard deals: The consequences of heterogeneity in employment arrangements. The Academy of Management Journal, 49, 371–393.
empirical
Survey
quanttitative (survey)
standard and non-standard workers in a financial service firm
financial service
standard and non-standard workers
interface between standard and non-standard workers
Job attitudes in non-homogenous work groups
majority-minority group relations
group dynamics in non-standard work
N/A
peer reviewed
Academy of management journal
2006
We examined how proportions of individuals in standard and nonstandard work arrangements affected work group members' relationships with supervisors, social relations with coworkers, willingness to assist others, and intentions to leave their organization. Supporting Blalock's theory of majority-minority group relations, higher proportions of nonstandard workers were associated with less favorable attitudes toward supervisors and peers, increased turnover intentions, and decreased work related helping behaviors. The consequences of heterogeneity in employment arrange ments were contingent on (1) workers' locations in their firm's mobility system, (2) type of nonstandard arrangements, and (3) the amount and type of contact between stan dard and nonstandard workers.

Cappelli, P. (1999). Career jobs are dead. California Management Review, 42(1), 146–167.
Article review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Job quality in gig work
Economy trends
inequality in gig economy

N/A

California Management Review
1999
Most observers have a strong sense that jobs and especially careers are different now as compared to previous decades, but it is often hard to put that difference into words. The traditional categories that we use to describe jobs—long-term versus short-term, high-wages and benefits versus low benefits, managerial versus production work—come from an earlier era and reflect the long-standing concern about whether jobs, blue-collar in particular, provide the means to prevent hardship for employees and their families. Sanford Jacoby’s article, “Are Career Jobs Headed for Extinction?” [in this issue of CMR], examines how employment has changed based largely on the traditional criteria noted above. “Career jobs” are implicitly defined in his article as full-time jobs that last reasonably long, pay reasonably well, and offer benefits, reflecting the public policy concern about whether jobs provide the means to prevent economic hardship. (I find it more accurate to refer to such jobs as “good jobs” and do so below.) He finds change in some dimensions but evidence of stability in most others. He will get little argument that inequality in outcomes has increased sharply. 1 The fact that the working poor have not participated to the same extent as other segments of the workforce in the economic expansion is perhaps the most important point about rising inequality. His overall conclusion that while all is not well in the labor market, there are still lots of these good jobs (that provide good wages and benefits and that last a reasonable period of time) seems like a fair one.2 However, the fact that there could be a serious debate as to whether jobs have gotten worse during one of the greatest periods of economic expansion in the history of the United States is itself interesting evidence of a change in the economy.

Cappelli, P. & Keller, J. R. (2013). Classifying work in the new economy. Academy of Management Review, 38, 575-596.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Economy trends
classification of gig economy
research agenda

N/A
peer reviewed
Academy of Management Review
2013
Alternatives to the archetypal model of full-time regular employment are now both
prevalent and wide-ranging. Over a fifth of U.S. workers, and even more globally, now
perform economic work under arrangements that differ from full-time regular employ-
ment. Yet most of our management and social science notions about economic work
are based on the full-time employment model. We know relatively little about the
operation and consequences of alternative arrangements in part because while these
arrangements vary considerably, they are commonly grouped together for research
purposes using existing classification systems. We outline an inclusive classification
system that distinguishes clearly between employment and its alternatives. It also
distinguishes among the alternatives themselves by grouping work arrangements
into categories that share common properties and that are distinct from each other in
ways that matter for practice and for research. The classification system is based on
distinctions about the sources and extent of control over the work process, the con-
tractual nature of the work relationship, and the parties involved in the work rela-
tionship. Our classification system is both informed by and reflects the legal distinc-
tions among these categories. We explore implications of our system for research and
theory developme

Carnoy, M., Castells, M., & Benner, C. (1997). Labour markets and employment practices in the age of flexibility: A case study of Silicon Valley. International Labour Review, 135, 27–48.
Empirical
case study
statistics analysis
N/A
N/A
N/A
Turnover in flexible work
high skilled flexible workers
labour market trends

N/A
peer reviewed
International Labour Review
1997
Flexible employment has accounted for more than half of Silicon Valley's total employment growth in the past ten years. Given the area's trend-setting role in global high-technology production, this pattern is likely to spread. Focusing on temporary agencies, it is shown that this and other forms of flexible employment have become a permanent strategy among firms. This may create insecurity for low-skilled workers, but highly skilled workers are using the system to their own advantage. The main problem for firms is no longer a lack of flexibility, but an undesirable high turnover rate among their most valued employees.

Cascio, W. F. (2000). Managing a virtual workplace. Academy of Management Executive, 14, 81–90.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Effective remote work
consequences of remotework

N/A

Academy of Management Executiv
2000
Virtual workplaces, in which employees operate remotely from each other and from managers, are a reality, and will become even more common in the future. There are sound business reasons for establishing virtual workplaces, but their advantages may be offset by such factors as setup and maintenance costs, loss of cost efficiencies, cultural clashes, isolation, and lack of trust. Virtual teams and telework are examples of such arrangements, but they are not appropriate for all jobs, all employees, or all managers. To be most effective in these environments, managers need to do two things well: Shift from a focus on time to a focus on results; and recognize that virtual workplaces, instead of needing fewer managers, require better supervisory skills among existing managers. Taking these steps can lead to stunning improvements in productivity, profits, and customer service.

Caza, B. B., Moss, S., & Vough, H. (2018). From synchronizing to harmonizing: The process of authenticating multiple work identities. Administrative Science Quarterly, 63, 703-745.
empirical
longitudinal interviews
longitudinal qualitative
Multiple careerist
varies
Multiple careerist
multiple work identities
authenticity
gig workers coping strategies

authenticity, multiple work identities, plural careerists, authentication, impression management
peer reviewed
Administrative Science Quarterly
2018
To understand how people cultivate and sustain authenticity in multiple, often
shifting, work roles, we analyze qualitative data gathered over five years from a
sample of 48 plural careerists—people who choose to simultaneously hold and
identify with multiple jobs. We find that people with multiple work identities
struggle with being, feeling, and seeming authentic both to their contextualized
work roles and to their broader work selves. Further, practices developed to
cope with these struggles change over time, suggesting a two-phase emergent
process of authentication in which people first synchronize their individual work
role identities and then progress toward harmonizing a more general work self.
This study challenges the notion that consistency is the core of authenticity,
demonstrating that for people with multiple valued identities, authenticity is not
about being true to one identity across time and contexts, but instead involves
creating and holding cognitive and social space for several true versions of oneself that may change over time. It suggests that authentication is the emergent, socially constructed process of both determining who one is and helping
others see who one is.

Chattopadhyay, P., & George, E. (2001). Examining the effects of work externalization through the lens of social identity theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 781–788.
empirical
Survey
quanttitative (survey)
Employees and temporary workers of fortune 500 firm in the computer hardware manufacturing industry, or a medium sized manufacturer of printed circuits
manufacturing
Employees and temporary workers
interface between standard and non-standard workers
identity
Job attitudes in non-homogenous work groups

peer reviewed
ournal of Applied Psychology
2001
This study examines whether dissimilarity between employees based on their work status (i.e., whether they are temporary or internal workers) influences their organization based self-esteem, their trust in and attraction towards their peers, and their altruism. A model based on social identity theory posits that work status dissimilarity negatively influences each outcome variable, and that the strength of this relationship varies depending on whether employees have temporary or internal status and the composition of their work groups. Results based on a survey of 326 employees (189 internal and 168 temporary, 168 male, 158 female) from 34 work groups, belonging to two organizations indicate that work status dissimilarity has a systematic negative effect only on outcomes related to internal workers when they work in temporary worker-dominated groups.

Cobble, D. S., & Vosko, L. F. (2000). Historical perspectives on representing nonstandard workers. In F. Carre, M. A. Ferber, L. Golden, & S. A. Herzenberg (Eds.), Nonstandard work: The nature and challenges of changing employment arrangements, 291–312. Champaign, IL: Industrial Relations Research Association.

Cohen, L., & Mallon, M. (2001). My brilliant career? International Studies of Management and Organization, 31, 48–68.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Discursive methods
Use of story in studying careers
Narratives

peer reviewed
International Studies of Management and Organization
2001
Abstract: Within organizational research, stories are increasingly recognized as a powerful research tool. In this article we argue that stories can likewise be a valuable research instrument in analyzing "career." In particular; they illuminate the ways in which individuals make sense of their careers as they unfold through time and space, attending to both the holistic nature of career as well as to specific career transitions. Further; stories as discursive constructs provide insights into individual sense-making. Through such insights, the story-based researcher can build a rich, complex, multifaceted, and integrated picture from the perspective of situated individuals.

Connelly, C. E., & Gallagher, D. G. (2004). Emerging trends in contingent work research. Journal of Management, 30, 959–983.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
causal interrelationships among the diverse constructs
Overview of the topical themes
research agenda

N/A
peer reviewed
Journal of Managemen
2004
In the past decade there has been growing internationally-based evidence towards a trend in organizational staffing strategies which have placed emphasis upon the direct or brokered hiring of workers on temporary, fixed-term or “contingent” employment contracts in lieu of contracts with the implication of an ongoing relationship. Concurrently, there has been an emergence of research activity concerning individual and organizational-level consequences associated with the increased organizational reliance on fixed-term contracts in the workplace. This paper provides an overview of the contingent work literature and identifies topical themes and research questions which have been the primary focus of attention, as well as the possible causal interrelationships among the diverse constructs which have been examined. The paper highlights aspects of the existing research that may benefit from further exploration, as well as consideration of a number of theoretical and methodological issues which have also emerged

Cooper, C. D., & Kurland, N. B. (2002). Telecommuting, professional isolation, and employee development in public and private organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 511–532.
empirical
interview
Qualitative (interview)
remote workers in public and private sector
communications, and microelectronics/ city governments
remote workers
Remote work
Isolation in remote work
Comparison of remote work consequences for public and private sector

N/A
peer reviewed
Journal of organizational behavior
2002
This study employs a grounded theory methodology to compare the impact telecommuting
has on public and private employees’ perceptions of professional isolation. It relied on 93
semi-structured interviews with telecommuters, non-telecommuters, and their respective
supervisors in two high technology firms and two city governments. These organizations
had active telecommuting programmes and a strong interest in making telecommuting a successful work option, providing an opportunity to investigate the challenges of telecommuting
that existed even within friendly environments. The interviews demonstrated that professional
isolation of telecommuters is inextricably linked to employee development activities (interpersonal networking, informal learning, and mentoring). The extent to which telecommuters
experience professional isolation depends upon the extent to which these activities are valued
in the workplace and the degree to which telecommuters miss these opportunities. Public
respondents appeared to value these informal developmental activities less than private
employees. Therefore, we stipulate that telecommuting is less likely to hinder the professional
development of public sector employees than that of employees in the private sector.

Coyle-Shapiro, J. A., & Kessler, I. (2002). Contingent and non-contingent workers in local government: Contrasting psychological contracts. Public Administration, 80, 77–101.
empirical
Survey
quanttitative (survey)
Contingent and permanent workers in public service in UK
British local
authority
contingent and permanent workers
consequences of contingent work on the attitudes and behaviour of employees
psychological contract and OCB
Contingent work commitment
contingent work in public service

peer reviewed
Public Administration
2002
Given that the contingent worker is likely to be a familiar presence in the public service workplace of the future, this paper explores the consequences of contingent work arrangements on the attitudes and behaviour of employees using the psychological contract as a framework for analysis. Drawing upon survey evidence from a sample of permanent, fixed term and temporary staff employed in a British local authority, our results suggest that contract status plays an important role in how individuals view the exchange relationship with their employer and how they respond to the inducements received from that relationship. Specifically, contingent employees are less committed to the organization and engage in organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) to a lesser degree than their permanent counterparts. However, contrary to our hypothesis, the relationship between the inducements provided by the employer and OCB is stronger for contingent employees. Such findings have implications for the treatment of contingent and non-contingent employees in the public services.

Damarin, A. K. (2006). Rethinking occupational structure: The case of web site production work. Work and Occupations, 33, 429–463.
empirical
Interview
qualitative
Freelancers and permanent workers in web production
Web workers
Freelancers and permanent workers
Occupation structure and history
Fluid jobs
Autonomy
flexibility
occupations; flexibility; autonomy; careers; World Wide Web
peer reviewed
Work and Occupations
2006
This article addresses the structure of occupations in flexible work settings by examining the case of Web site production. Web work does not exhibit traditional occupations: Rather than falling within bounded task jurisdictions, Web jobs and careers involve fluid combinations of multiple task sets. Furthermore, workers identify less with particular specialties than with Web production as a whole. Fluid jobs allow workers some autonomy in production, but little control over the wider organization of work. This suggests that flexibility may generate new occupational structures and new contradictions for workers, but comparison with prior research suggests that occupations have never been entirely uniform.

Davenport, T. H., & Pearlson, K. (1998). Two cheers for the virtual office. Sloan Management Review, 39(4), 51–65.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Objectives of virtual work
Managing virtual work
Advantages and disadvantages of virtual work

Telecommuting;
Virtual corporations;
High tech industries;
Strategic management;
Advantages

Sloan Management Review
1998
Technology has made it possible to redefine where work is done. The traditional notion of an office as the place where someone goes to work seems to be going the way of the 8-track tape. Companies such as Procter & Gamble, IBM, Hewlett-Packard, AT&T, and Compaq have partially or fully eliminated traditional offices for field sales and customer service. The virtual office appeals to many different corporate stakeholders. Successful virtual offices require radical new approaches to evaluating, educating, organizing and information workers. The objectives for virtual work arrangements are discussed.

Davis-Blake, A., & Uzzi, B. (1993). Determinants of employment externalization: A study of temporary workers and independent contractors. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38, 195–223.
empirical
Survey (longitudinal)
quantitative
organizations
Department of Labor's Employment Opportunity Pilot Project (EOPP) employer surveys
organizations
antecedents of externalization

N/A
peer reviewed
Administrative Science Quarterly
1993
This paper examines what determines the use of temporary workers and independent contractors in a variety of organizations. We hypothesize that four factors affect the use of externalized workers: employment costs, the external environment, organizational size and bureaucratization, and skill requirements. Data from a large sample of employers surveyed by the U.S. Department of Labor were used to test the hypotheses. Analyses showed that each factor affected the use of both temporary workers and independent contractors; however, the effects differed across the two types of workers. Firm-specific training, government oversight, bureaucratized employment practices, establishment size, and requirements for high levels of informational or technical skill had negative effects on organizations' use of temporary workers; variation in employment needs positively affected the use of temporary workers. Variation in employment needs, bureaucratized employment practices, establishment size, and being part of a multiple-site firm had positive effects on the use of independent contractors. We discuss the implications of these findings for the study of the employment relationship.'

Davis-Blake, A., Broschak, J. P., & George, E. (2003). Happy together? How using nonstandard workers affects exit, voice, and loyalty among standard employees. Academy of Management Journal, 46, 475–485.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
the General Social Survey (GSS) and the National Organizations Survey (NOS)

standard and non-standard workers
interface between standard and non-standard workers
blended workforce outcomes

N/A
peer reviewed
Academy of management journal
2003
We examined how a blended workforce (one with "standard" and "nonstandard" workers in the same jobs) affected exit, "voice," and loyalty among standard employ- ees. We found that workforce blending worsened relations between managers and employees, decreased standard employees' loyalty, and increased their interest both in leaving their organizations and in exercising voice through unionization. However, these effects were contingent on whether the nonstandard workers were temporary or contract and on the salary and responsibilities of the standard employees.

Dennis, W. J. (1996). Self-employment: When nothing else is available? Journal of Labor Research, 17, 645–661.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
Small business owners/ self employers
Small business owners/ self employers
self-employers
What pushes/motivates people to become self-employed
antecendents of self-emplotment
statistics of self employes

peer reviewed
Journal of labour research
1996
The evidence tells us that people enter self-employment because they want to, not because they see it as the best, and perhaps only, option available. It also tells us that people who enter self-employment come from another job and to a lesser extent from outside the labor force. Finally, the evidence tells us that people who are selfemployed prefer self-employment to alternative work arrangements.

DeVoe, S. E. & House, J. (2012). Time, money, and happiness: How does putting a price on time affect our ability to smell the roses? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 466–474.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
Mechanical Turk (MTurk)
Mechanical Turk (MTurk)
Mechanical Turk (MTurk)
placing a price on time
experience of happiness
Time use

Time; Money; Impatience; Happiness
peer reviewed
Journal of experimental social psychology
2012
In this paper, we investigate how the impatience that results from placing a price on time impairs individuals' ability to derive happiness from pleasurable experiences. Experiment 1 demonstrated that thinking about one's income as an hourly wage reduced the happiness that participants derived from leisure time on the internet. Experiment 2 revealed that a similar manipulation decreased participants' state of happiness after listening to a pleasant song and that this effect was fully mediated by the degree of impatience experienced during the music. Finally, Experiment 3 showed that the deleterious effect on happiness caused by impatience was attenuated by offering participants monetary compensation in exchange for time spent listening to music, suggesting that a sensation of unprofitably wasted time underlay the induced impatience. Together these experiments establish that thinking about time in terms of money can influence how people experience pleasurable events by instigating greater impatience during unpaid time.

DeVoe, S. E. & Pfeffer, J. (2007). Hourly payment and volunteering: The effect of organizational practices on decisions about time use. Academy of Management Journal, 50, 783-798.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
2003 American Time Use Survey (ATUS)
2004 American Time Use Survey (ATUS)
hourly and nonhourly workers
Association of hourly pay and volunteering
Time use

N/A
peer reviewed
Academy of management journal
2007
We examine how organizational practices making an economic evaluation of time salient, such as hourly pay, can lead people to spend less time on uncompensated work?volunteering. Using nationally representative survey data, in Study 1 we showed that, with other factors that might affect time decisions controlled, people paid by the hour were both less likely to volunteer and spent less time volunteering than counterparts who were not paid hourly. Study 2 showed that having people calculate their hourly wage was associated with decreased willingness to volunteer and that this experimental manipulation only affected people not paid by the hour

Dick, P., & Hyde, R. (2006). Consent as resistance, resistance as consent: Re-reading part-time professionals' acceptance of their marginal positions. Gender, Work, and Organization, 13, 543–564.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Part-time work and power
identity and power
acceptance as resistance

part-time work; professional part-time workers; identity; power; gender; resistance; subject positions
peer reviewed
Gender, Work and Organization.
2006
The part-time employee has traditionally occupied a marginal position in organizations. The recent increase in the numbers of part-time professionals, however, has been seen as offering potential for the status of the part-time employee to improve. Evidence to date suggests that this improvement has not taken place and that the part-time professional is also marginalized. Interestingly, research suggests that part-time professionals may not experience their subordinate positions as problematic, often believing that the drawbacks of reduced hours working are a legitimate consequence of their ‘choice’ to work part-time. Such ‘choices’ are frequently attributed to part-timers’ prioritization of non-work activities. In this article, using a Foucauldian approach to identity, we argue that choices need to be understood as both situated in time and space and constituted through discourse. Using these ideas we provide a re-reading of part-timers’ consent to their marginalization, arguing that their responses to their positions at work can also be understood as resistance to some of the dominant norms of professionalism. We set out the conditions that might be implicated in translating subjective resistance into more material actions.

DiNatale, M. (2001). Characteristics of and preference for alternative work arrangements, 1999. Monthly Labor Review, 124(3), 28–49.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Characteristics of non-standard workers
preferences of non-standard workers
statistics of non-standard workers

peer reviewed
Monthly labour review
2001
N/A

Donovan, S. A., Bradley, D. H., & Shimabukuro. (2016). What does the gig economy mean for workers? CRS Report R44365. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
legal and policy considerations
statistics

N/A

CRS Report R44365
2016
Technological advancement and the proliferation of the smartphone have reshaped the commercial landscape, providing consumers new ways to access the retail marketplace. On-demand companies are one such innovation, and underpinning on-demand commerce is the gig economy, the collection of markets that match service providers to consumers of on-demand services on a gig (or job) basis.

Flagship on-demand companies such as Uber (driver services) and Handy (home cleaners and household services) have garnered significant media attention both for their market success and recent legal challenges, particularly concerning the classification of gig workers. Broader questions about the pros and cons of the gig economy have emerged as on-demand markets grow and the gig economy expands into new sectors. By some accounts, workers’ willingness to participate in the gig economy provides evidence that gig work is a beneficial arrangement. Indeed, gig jobs may yield benefits relative to traditional employment in terms of the ease of finding employment and greater flexibility to choose jobs and hours. The gig economy may facilitate bridge employment (e.g., temporary employment between career jobs or between full-time work and retirement) or provide opportunities to generate income when circumstances do not accommodate traditional full-time, full-year employment. At the same time, however, the potential lack of labor protections for gig workers and the precarious nature of gig work have been met with some concern.

The nationwide reach of gig work and its potential to impact large groups of workers, and their livelihoods, have attracted the attention of some Members of Congress. These Members have raised questions about the size and composition of the gig workforce, the proper classification of gig workers (i.e., as employees or independent contractors), the potential for gig work to create work opportunities for unemployed or underemployed workers, and implications of gig work for worker protections and access to traditional employment-based benefits.

In support of these policy considerations, this report provides an overview of the gig economy and identifies legal and policy questions relevant to its workforce.

Ellingson, J. E., Gruys, M. L., & Sackett, P. R. (1998). Factors related to the satisfaction and performance of temporary employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 913–921.
empirical
Survey
quanttitative (survey)
clerical temporary employees
clerical
temporary employees
relation of voluntary/ involuntary pursuit of temporary work with satisfaction and performance

peer reviewed
Journal of Applied Psychology
1998
Previous research suggests that whether temporary employees are voluntary or involuntary in their choice to pursue temporary work is related to satisfaction levels. This study investigated whether voluntarily or invOluntarily pursuing temporary work is related to satisfaction and performance. Previous work has classified individuals as voluntary or involuntary when operationalizing the decision to pursue temporary work. This study used a more complex measure that addressed individuals' reasons for pursuing temporary work. Analyses were conducted using the complex measure and a traditional classification. The results suggest 4 conclusions: (a) a complex measure may be preferred over a dichotomous classification when operationalizing the decision to pursue temporary work, (b) individuals who are involuntarily pursuing temporary work may be less satisfied, (c) whether an individual voluntarily pursues temporary work appears to be unrelated to satisfaction levels, and (d) whether an individual is voluntarily or involuntarily pursuing temporary work is unrelated to performance.

Evans, J. A., Kunda, G., & Barley, S. R. (2004). Beach time, bridge time, and billable hours: The temporal structure of technical contracting. Administrative Science Quarterly, 49, 1-38.
empirical
interview
qualitative
technical contractors
technical contractors
contractors
time use
temporal flexibility
time as money
autonomy paradox
N/A
peer reviewed
Administrative Science Quarterly
2004
This paper uses data from career histories of technical contractors to explore how they experience, interpret, and allocate their time and whether they take advantage of the temporal flexibility purportedly offered by contract work in the market. Technical contractors offer a unique opportunity for examining assumptions about organizations, work, and time because they are itinerant professionals who operate outside any single organizational context. We find that contractors do perceive themselves to have flexibility and that a few achieve a kind of flexibility unattained by most permanent employees doing similar work, but rather than take advantage of what they call "beach time" and "downtime," the majority work long hours and rarely schedule their time flexibly. The contractors' use of time is constrained by the cyclic structure of employment, the centrality of reputation in markets for skill, the practice of billing by the hour, and the nature of technical work. Our research suggests that markets place more rather than fewer constraints on workers' time.*

Feldman, D. C. (1990). Reconceptualizing the nature and consequences of part-time. Academy of Management Review, 15, 103–112.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Part time work and consequences
part time work and employee attitudes

peer reviewed
Academy of Management Review
1990
This article presents a theoretical framework for understanding the impact of part-time work on employees' attitudes and behaviors. A series of hypotheses also are presented to explain the varying con- sequences that different types of part-time employment arrange- ments, work-context factors, and demographic variables have on the experiences of part-time workers. Future issues for theory develop- ment and research methodology are discussed as well.

Feldman, D. C., & Bolino, M. C. (2000). Career patterns of the self-employed: Career motivations and career outcomes. Journal of Small Business Management, 38, 53–67.
empirical
mixed method (survey and qualitative)
qualitative and quantitative
national survey of the self-employe + qualitative data from self employed
self-employed
self-employed
career anchors and self-employment outcomes
self-employment and job satisfaction
motivation to pursue self-employment

peer reviewed
Journal of small business managemnet
2000
Despite the rapid increase in the growth of self-employment in the U.S., surprisingly little attention has been given to what motivates individuals to start small business enterprises and the extent to which self-employment fulfills important career needs. The present study utilizes the "career anchors" typology of Schein (1978, 1990) to determine which "constellations" of career goals, interests, and values attract individuals into, and keep them attached to, selfemployment Then, using data from a national survey of the self-employed, the effects of career anchors on career outcomes (in terms of job satisfaction. psychological well-being, skill utilization, and future career plans) are examined. Quantitative data on individuals' job histories and qualitative data from respondents on the advantages and disadvantages of self-employment are used to identify differential patterns of career outcomes among the self-employed. The results suggest that individuals do vary greatly in their motivations to pursue self-employment, that career anchors do influence the goals individuals hope to achieve from, self-employment, and that career anchors do influence individuals' satisfaction with their jobs, careers, and lives in general.

Feldman, D. C., & Gainey, T. W. (1997). Patterns of telecommuting and their consequences: Framing the research agenda. Human Resource Management Review, 7, 369–388.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
research agenda

peer reviewed
Human resource management review
1997
While there are over 7 million telecommuters in the U.S. today, there has been little empirical research and virtually no theoretical work on telecommuting. Drawing from the literatures on contingent employment, job design and social isolation, this article presents a theoretical framework for understanding how different constellations of telecommuting arrangements and job characteristics lead to different patterns of employee attitudes and behaviors. After presenting a series of propositions, the article concludes with suggestions for the empirical testing of these propositions and a discussion of the implications for management practice.

Feldman, D. C., Doerpinghaus, H. I., & Turnley, W. H. (1994). Managing temporary workers: A permanent HRM challenge. Organizational Dynamics, 23, 49–53.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
temporary workers
clercial
light industrial
service work
temporary workers
advantages andchallenges of temporary work
psychological contract between the organization and the employee

organizational Dynamics
1994
Temporary employment is becoming more prevalent in the US. Since the early 1980s, the number of temporary workers (temps) has risen from just 250,000 to over 1.5 million, while the number of temporary-employment agencies has grown from around 100 to nearly 1,500. To gain a better understanding of this $20-billion-a-year business, 200 temps from seven employment agencies were surveyed. Results showed that temporary work is particularly appealing to working mothers, college students, and peripheral workers or those who chose not to have full-time employment. It was also found that, although temporary work has potential advantages, many of the surveyed temps have serious reservations about this kind of employment. They cited the dehumanizing and impersonal treatment they receive on the job, insecurity about their employment, the lack of employee benefits, and unclear job descriptions. Several personnel management practices that address these concerns are suggested.

Feldman, D. C., Doerpinghaus, H. I., & Turnley, W. H. (1995). Employee reactions to temporary jobs. Journal of Managerial Issues, 7, 127.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
temporary workers
clercial
light industrial
service work
temporary workers
employees' reactions to temporary jobs

peer reviewed
Journal of management issues
1995
N/A

Felstead, A., & Gallie, D. (2004). For better or worse? Nonstandard jobs and high involvement work systems. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15, 1293–1316.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
permanent and temporary workers
varies
permanent and temporary workers
high involvement work systems and parti-time job quality
Skill level of non-standad workers
job insecurity in non-standard work

Non-standard jobs; part-time jobs; temporary jobs; high involvement work organizations; skills; job insecurity
peer reviewed
Internatiional journal of human resource management
2004
Over the last couple of decades, core-periphery models of employment have dominated the debate on organizational responsiveness to change. More recently, however, researchers have also turned their attention to organizational reforms that seek to involve, engage and empower workers in their jobs. This paper addresses two related questions that emerge from these debates: are non-standard jobs lowly skilled and insecure and, if so, do high involvement work systems make things better or worse? By drawing on the 2001 Skills Survey the paper presents evidence on the most comprehensive and up-todate information currently available in Britain. The paper finds that, while in most respects part-time workers and those on temporary contracts (especially those with contracts of uncertain duration) are in more lowly skilled jobs, only those on temporary contacts suffer from relatively high levels of insecurity. Despite this, non-standard employees appear to gain more than full-time permanent employees from being part of a high involvement work system – part-timers, in particular, benefit most from the increased level of skills these workplaces demand, and some types of temporary employees take additional benefit from the enhanced employment security with which these workplaces are associated.

Gallagher, D. G., & McLean Parks, J. (2001). I pledge thee my troth…contingently: Commitment and the contingent work relationship. Human Resource Management Review, 11, 181–208.
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
non-standard work and different types of commitment
psychological contract

Commitment; Contingent work; Temporary work; Psychological contracts
peer reviewed
Human resource management review
2001
This paper examines work commitment outside of traditional and ongoing employer–employee relationships. In particular, attention is given to the commitment-related implications associated with the growth of various forms of “contingent” employment contracts. Of specific theoretical and practical concern is the applicability, overlap, and/or relative importance of various commitment foci (e.g., organization, job, occupation, and employment) for workers employed in both traditional arrangements and three illustrative forms of contingent employment. Implications for commitment theory, human resource management practices, and future research needs are discussed.

Gandini, A. The rise of coworking spaces: A literature review. ephemera: theory & politics in organization, 15(1), 193-205.
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Coworking spaces

ephemera: theory & politics in organization
2015
N/A

Garrett, L. E., Spreitzer, G. M., & Bacevice, P. A. (2017). Co-constructing a sense of community at work: The emergence of community in coworking spaces. Organization Studies, 38, 821-842.
empirical
Interview and participant observation
qualitative (interview)
freelancers and remote workers
varies
freelancers and remote workers
Coworking spaces
sense of community in coworking spaces

peer reviewed
organization studies
2017
As more individuals are working remotely, many feel increasingly isolated and socially adrift. To address this challenge, many independent workers are choosing to work in coworking spaces – shared spaces where individuals do their own work but in the presence of others with the express purpose of being part of a community. In this qualitative, single case study, we analyze how members of a coworking space work together to co-construct a sense of community through their day-to-day interactions in the space. We apply a relational constructionist lens to unpack the processes of ‘community work’ as an interactive, agentic process. We identify three types of collective actions, or interacts, that contribute to a sense of community: endorsing, encountering, and engaging. These interacts represent different forms of community work that members interactively accomplish to maintain a desired community experience. The rapidly growing coworking movement offers insights, as uncovered in this study, on how to integrate a sense of community into the world of work.

Garsten, C. (1999). Betwixt and between: Temporary employees as liminal subjects in flexible organizations. Organization Studies, 20, 601–617.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
non standard work and liminality
non standard work and subjectivity
non standard work and reflexivity

flexible workforce, temporary work, organizational change, subjectivity, reflexivity, liminality
peer reviewed
organization studies
1999
As organizations change to become more flexible and transient, the use of a flexible workforce becomes an attractive solution. Temporary employees are here tentatively viewed as being `betwixt and between' organizational structures, in transit between the relatively fixed positions of full-time, regular employment. Building on previous fieldwork and recent interviews among temporary employees in Sweden and the US, the notion of liminality is employed to explore aspects of temporary work. The liminal position of `temporaries', it is suggested, is an ambiguous position involving both risks and opportunities for individuals, temporary staffing agencies, and client organizations alike. It may be seen as a seedbed of cultural creativity, where old perspectives on work and subjectivity are contested and new ones created. Related to the transient, mobile character of temporary employment, is an enhanced awareness of substitutability and a continuous reflexive monitoring of manners and competencies. Furthermore, the mobile and temporary character of assignments lead to the development of transient and episodic imagined communities of the workplace.

Through the lens of liminality then, temporal and contractual flexibilization of work is seen to challenge the old boundaries of industrial society and to suggest new ways of organizing and experiencing work, as well as new ways of constructing organizational subjectivity.

George, E. (2003). External solutions and internal problems: The effects of employment externalization on internal workers' attitudes. Organization Science, 14, 386–402.
empirical
survey
quantitative
internal and external workers
manufacturing
plant of a computer hardware manufacturer

internal and external workers
external work and commitment
psychological contract

peer reviewed
Organization Science
2003
This study examines whether employment externalization, or the use of temporary and contract workers in organizations, is associated with weak psychological bonds between the internal workforce and organization. Specifically, the extent and length of such externalization would negatively relate to internal workers’ trust in, commitment toward, and psychological contract with organizations. The premise for this argument is that internal workers may view externalization as an indicator of the organization’s low-level commitment to them. Internal workers would reciprocate by decreasingtheir attachment to the organization. Externalization might also be seen as violatingthe psychological contract between employees and employers, since externalization is associated with slowed upward mobility and poor work support for internal workers. However, organizational actions that indicate commitment toward employees would mitigate such negative effects. I posit that externalization would be viewed less negatively both by workers who believe they have secure jobs, and by those who supervise and train others. These hypotheses were tested with data collected from 256 internal workers in three organizations. Results indicate that both the extent and length of externalization are negatively related to internal workers’ attitudes, especially for those of internal workers with fewer supervisory responsibilities. However, contrary to the hypotheses, the relationship is also more negative for internal workers with high job security.

George, E., & Chattopadhyay, P. (2005). One foot in each camp: The dual identification of contract workers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 50, 68–99.
empirical
survey
quantitative
contract workers belonging to four organizations that take on contracting work in the information technology industry
contracting work in the information technology industry
contractors
organizational identification in contract work

peer reviewed
Administrative Science Quarterly
2005
We examine the organizational identification of contract workers who are associated with two organizations, their primary employer and their client. We conducted a study of contract workers in the information technology industry to address three questions: (1) What are the antecedents of contract workers’ identification with the work organizations with which they are associated? (2) Do these antecedents differentially predict identification with each of the target organizations? and (3) What is the relationship between contract workers’ identification with their employing organization and their identification with their client organization? Results indicate that contract workers identify with both the employing and client organizations based on perceived characteristics of the organization as well as social relations within the organization. Perceived characteristics of the organization are more closely related with identification with the employer, and social relations variables are more closely related with identification with the client. Contract workers are more likely to identify with both their client and their employing organization when the two are perceived to be similar on key attributes.•

George, E., Chattopadhyay, P., Lawrence, S., & Shulman, A. (2003). The influence of employment externalization on work content and employees’ justice perceptions. Paper presented at the 2003 National Academy of Management Meeting, Seattle, WA.

Conference presentation
Academy of Management Meeting
2003

Gibson, C. B., & Gibbs, J. L. (2006). Unpacking the concept of virtuality: The effects of geographic dispersion, electronic dependence, dynamic structure, and national diversity on team innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51(3), 451-495.
empirical
Interview and survey
mixed methods
Virtual workers
varies
Virtual workers
virtual work and geographic dispersion
virtual work and electronic dependence
virtual work and structural dynamism
virtual work and national diversity

peer reviewed
Administrative Science Quarterly
2006
To understand why the virtual design strategies that organizations create to foster innovation may in fact hinder it, we unpack four characteristics often associated with the term “virtuality” (geographic dispersion, electronic dependence, structural dynamism, and national diversity) and argue that each hinders innovation through unique mechanisms, many of which can be overcome by creating a psychologically safe communication climate. We first tested the plausibility of our arguments using indepth qualitative analysis of interviews with 177 members of 14 teams in a variety of industries. A second study constituted a more formal test of hypotheses using survey data collected from 266 members of 56 aerospace design teams. Results show that the four characteristics are not highly intercorrelated, that they have independent and differential effects on innovation, and that a psychologically safe communication climate helps mitigate the challenges they pose. We discuss the implications of these findings for theory and research.

Golden, T. D. (2006). The role of relationships in understanding telecommuter satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27, 319–340.
empirical
Survey
quanttitative (survey)
telecommuters in a high-tech company
high-technology company
telecommuters
teleworking impact on work relationships and job satisfaction
teleworking impact on work-life conflict

N/A
peer reviewed
Journal of organizational behavior
2006
Relationships are fundamental to organizational functioning, yet as telecommuting and other forms of virtual work become increasingly popular, research has not yet focused on how the virtual context might alter relationships so as to impact important work outcomes. This study therefore examines the role relationships play in mediating the link between the extent of telecommuting and job satisfaction. In doing so three fundamental types of relationships maintained by employees are investigated—those with managers, coworkers, and family. Regression analysis of field data from 294 telecommuting employees in a large telecommunications company revealed the anticipated inverted U-shaped relationship, mediated by leader-member exchange quality, team-member exchange quality, and work-family conflict. Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Golden, T., & Veiga, J. F. (2005). The impact of extent of telecommuting on job satisfaction: Resolving inconsistent findings. Journal of Management, 31, 310–318.
empirical
Survey
quanttitative (survey)
professional-level telecommuting employees

teleworking impact on job satisfaction
omptimum teleworking amount

telecommuting; job satisfaction; telework; virtual work
peer reviewed
Journal of management
2005
Although popular management wisdom has suggested that telecommuting enhances job satisfaction, research has found both positive and negative relationships. In this study, the authors attempt to resolve these inconsistent findings by hypothesizing a curvilinear, inverted U-shaped relationship between the extent of telecommuting and job satisfaction. Using hierarchical regression analysis on a sample of 321 professional-level employees, their findingssuggest a curvilinear link between extent of telecommuting and job satisfaction, with satisfaction appearing to plateau at more extensive levels of telecommuting. In addition, task interdependence and job discretion moderated this link, suggesting that some job attributes play an important, contingent role.

Guevara, K., & Ord, J. (1996). The search for meaning in a changing work context. Futures, 28, 709–722.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
impact of non-standard work on meaning of work
meaning of work in the future

peer reviewed
Futures
1996
The nature of work is currently undergoing a complete transformation. In response to economic pressures organizations are reshaping themselves into totally new forms. Information technology is underpinning this transformation by providing the backbone for new organizational structures and new ways of working. The implications of this transformation are far reaching, particularly as the entire concept of work changes. The boundaries which have traditionally existed between organizations, individuals, family, home life and community will disappear as work increasingly becomes situation-independent and centred in the home. Our current understanding of the meaning of work will become increasingly obsolete and therefore will force individuals to search for new meanings of work in their lives. As a result work will take on an entirely different meaning. This article explores the problems of the meaning of work in a context of change. We look forward to a future in which the nature of work as we know it now will have changed beyond recognition. The question we address is this: what will work mean to us in the future? C

Hennekam, S. & Bennett, D. (2016). Self-management of work in the creative industries in the Netherlands. International Journal of Arts Management, 19, 31–41.
empirical
mixed method (survey and qualitative)
mixed methods
members of the largest creative industries trade union in the Netherlands: the FNV-KIEM. U
Artists
Artists
creative work and identity
creative work and income insecurity
creative work and multiple role management

peer reviewed
International Journal of Arts Management
2016
N/A

Higgins, C., Duxbury, L., & Johnson, K. (2000). Part-time work for women: Does it really help balance work and family? Human Resource Management, 39, 17–32.
empirical
mixed method (survey and qualitative)
mixed methods
national study of the issues associated with balancing work and family in Canada
Private sector workers
full-time and part-time female workers
Part time work and consequences
part time work for women
part-time work and family life

peer reviewed
Human Resource Management
2000
Results of this study suggest that the differential response of women to part-time work as opposed to a career may be a function of motivational and work-context differences between career and non-career women. Part-time work was associated with lower work-to-family interference, better time management ability, and greater life satisfaction for women in both career and earner-type positions. Role overload, family-to-work interference, and family time management, however, were dependent on job type with beneficial effects for earners but not for career women. Job type also played a role: Career women reported higher life satisfaction and lower depressed mood than did women in earner positions

Hill, E. J., Miller, B., Weiner, S., & Colihan, J. (1998). Influences of the virtual office on aspects of work and work/life balance. Personnel Psychology, 51, 667–683.
empirical
mixed method (qualitative and quasi-experiment)
mixed methods
IBM virtual and non-virtual workers
IBM workers
virtual and non-virtual workers
telework and poductivity
telework and longer working hours
teleworking impact on work-life balance
teleworking and morale

peer reviewed
Personnel Psychology
1998
Millions of employees now use portable electronic tools to do theirjobs from a “virtual office” with extensive flexibility in the timing and location of work. However, little scholarly research exists about the effects of this burgeoning work form. This study of IBM employees explored influences of the virtual office on aspects of work and worwlife balance as reported by virtual office teleworkers (n = 157) and an equivalent group of traditional office workers (n = 89). Qualitative analyses revealed the perception of greater productivity, higher morale, increased flexibility and longer work hours due to telework, as well as an equivocal influence on work/life balance and a negative influence on teamwork. Using a quasi-experimental design, quantitative multivariate analyses supported the qualitative findings related to productivity, flexibility and worWlife balance. However, multivariate analyses failed to support the qualitative findings for morale, teamwork and work hours. This study highlights the need for a multi-method approach, including both qualitative and quantitative elements, when studying telework.

Hipple, S. F. (2010). Multiple jobholding during the 2000s. Monthly Labor Review, 133, 21–32.
review (stats)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Multiple jobholding trends
Multiple jobholding statistics
moonlighting

Monthly Labor Review
2010
N/A

Ho, V. T., Ang, S., & Straub, D. (2003). When subordinates become IT contractors: Persistent managerial expectations in IT outsourcing. Information Systems Research, 14, 66–86.
empirical
mixed method
mixed methods
IT contractors and managers
IT contractors and managers
contractors and managers
Outsourcing
Outsourcing and presistent expectation
contract work and relationships at work

(IT Outsourcing; Persistent Expectations; Role Overload; Strength ofTies; Contractor Performance; Contract Workers; Changing Employment Status
peer reviewed
Information Systems Research
2003
This paper investigates the persistence of managerial expectations in an IT outsourcing context where the traditional relationship between supervisor and subordinate changes to one of client-manager and contractor. A mixed-method approach was used, in which a qualitative methodology preceded a large-scale quantitative survey. Data were collected from 147 survivors of a government IT organization which had undergone IT outsourcing in the previous year. Findings show that role overload, the presence of strong ties between manager and contractor, and the lack of prior outsourcing experience increased the persistence of managerial expectations. In turn, persistence of expectations had a distinct influence on managerial perceptions of contractor performance.

Hoque, K., & Kirkpatrick, I. (2003). Nonstandard employment in the management and professional workforce: Training, consultation, and gender implications. Work, Employment & Society, 17, 67–689.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey.

Full-time and part-time/ permanent and temporary workers
temporary work and marginalization
temporary work and gender

consultation / gender / managers / non-standard employment / professionals/ training
peer reviewed
work, employment, and society
2003
Over the past decade, important changes have occurred in the occupational mix of the non-standard workforce, with a rising number of professionals and managers entering part-time and temporary forms of employment. However, while this shift is widely acknowledged, there remains some confusion regarding its consequences. One strand in the literature argues that, at higher occupational levels, the tendency for non-standard employees to experience marginalization at work will be far less pronounced or non-existent. A second strand argues that, regardless of occupational level, workers on part-time and temporary contracts will be treated unequally in various ways. In this article our aim is to explore this matter, drawing on data from the 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey.The analysis reveals that managers and professionals on non-standard contracts do become marginalized in terms of training opportunities and consultation at work, and that these outcomes are especially strong in the case of women. Finally, the managerial, national-level training policy and legal implications of the findings are discussed.

Houseman, S. N. (1997). Temporary, part-time, and contract employment in the United States: A report on the W. E. Upjohn Institute’s employer survey on flexible staffing policies. Kalamazoo, MI: W. E. Upjohn Institutes for Employment Research.
empirical
Survey
quantitative

temporary workers
statistics
challenges in gig work

N/A

1997
N/A

Howe, W. J. (1986,) Temporary help workers: Who they are, what jobs they hold. Monthly Labor Review, 109(11), 45–47.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
Temporary help workers
Current Population Survey (CPS)
temporary workers
demographic differences in temporary employment
temporary work and gender

N/A

Monthly Labor Review
1986
N/A

Hsu, G. (2006). Jacks of all trades and masters of none: Audiences’ reactions to spanning genres in feature film production.. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51, 420–450.
empirical
Archival data
quantitative
consumers of film

consumers of film
role of niche in creative work
role of unfocused genre in success of film production

N/A

Administrative Science Quarterly
2006
Through analyses of audience reception of U.S.-produced feature film projects from the period 2000–2003, I develop insight into the trade-off assumed in organizational ecology theory between an organization’s niche width and its fitness. This assumption, termed the principle of allocation, holds that the greater the diversity in regions of resource space targeted by an organization, the lower the organization’s capacity to perform well within them. Using data at both the professional critic and consumer levels, I demonstrate the empirical validity of this principle: films targeting more genres attract larger audiences but are less appealing to those audience members. Moreover, I find that audiences’ perceptions of a film’s fit with targeted genres drive this trade-off, as multi-genre films are difficult for audiences to make sense of, leading to poor fit with tastes and lowered appeal. These findings highlight the key role audiences’ perceptions play in the trade-offs associated with different niche strategies.•

Hudson, K. (2001). The disposable worker. Monthly Review, 124(4), 43–55.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
comparison between different non-standard arrangements
contingent work trends
contingent work and labor markets

N/A

Monthly Review
2001
N/A

Hundley, G. (2001). Why and when are the self-employed more satisfied with their work? Industrial Relations, 40, 293–316.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
Quality of Employment Survey (QES), a representative survey of the U.S. civilian workforce

self-employmnet and job satisfaction
autonomy, self employment and job satisfaction
skill utilization, self employment and job satisfaction

N/A
peer reviewed
Industrial relations
2001
Analysis confirms that the self-employed are more satisfied with their jobs because their work provides more autonomy, flexibility, and skill utilization and greater job security. These underlying mechanisms have been stable over the last 30 years and are not due simply to personality differences. The self-employed job satisfaction advantage is relatively small or nonexistent among managers and members of the established professions—occupations where organizational workers have relatively high autonomy and skill utilization.

Ibarra, H., & Obodaru, O. (2016). Betwixt and between identities: Liminal experience in contemporary careers. Research in Organizational Behavior, 36, 47-64.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Liminality in contemporary economy
identity

Identity, Liminality, Career, Identity growth
peer reviewed
Research in Organizational Behavior
2015
Liminality, defined as a state of being betwixt and between social roles and/or identities, is the hallmark of an increasingly precarious and fluctuating career landscape. The generative potential of the liminality construct, however, has been restricted by six key assumptions stemming from the highly institutionalized nature of the rites of passage originally studied. As originally construed, liminality (1) implied both an objective state and the subjective experience of feeling betwixt and between, and was (2) temporary, (3) obligatory, (4) guided by elders and/or supported by a community of fellow liminars, (5) rooted in culturally legitimate narratives, (6) and led to a progressive outcome, i.e., the next logical step in a role hierarchy. By recasting these assumptions as variables, we improve the construct’s clarity, precision, and applicability to contemporary liminal experiences that are increasingly under-institutionalized. We illustrate the utility of our updated conceptualization by arguing that under-institutionalized liminality is both more difficult to endure and more fertile for identity growth than the highly institutionalized experiences that gave rise to the original notion. Drawing from adult development theory, we further propose that for under-institutionalized experiences to foster identity growth, the identity processes involved need to be more akin to identity play than identity work. We discuss the theoretical implications of our ideas for research on liminality, identity, and careers.

Jackofsky, E. F., & Peters, L. H. (1987). Part-time versus full-time employment status differences: A replication and extension. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 8, 1–9.
Empirical
Survey
quantitative
sales personnel employed at eleven store locations of a large retail merchandising organization
sales
Full-time and part-time/ permanent and temporary workers
comparison between full-time and part-time workers
turnover
job performance

peer reviewed
Journal of Occupational Behavior
1987
Two groups of part-time employees were compared to full-time employees on several organizationally relevant reactions and behaviours in order to replicate and extend research on potential employment status differences. After controlling for demographics, it was found that there were mean differences between the groups; however, no evidence was found for differences in how the various groups 'process' organizational experience. Based on the results, irnplications for managing part- versus full-time employees are discussed.

Johns, T., & L. Gratton, L. (2013). The third wave of virtual work. Harvard Business Review, January-February, 1-9.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Virtual work and isolation
Trends in virtual work

Harvard Business Review
2013
n three major waves of change over the past 30 years, employers and workers have converged on new arrangements for getting knowledge work done. First, home computers and e-mail spawned an army of freelancers, offering both workers and employers new flexibility. Next, mobile technology and global teamwork gave the same kind of work-anywhere, work-anytime flexibility to full-time employees, without asking them to forsake career progress and development within their companies. Now, in a third wave, new ways of providing community and shared space are curing a side effect of virtualization- worker isolation-and driving increased collaboration. The authors write that to make the most of this third wave of change, employers should rethink the compact they forge with workers. Five fundamental aspects of knowledge work require fresh thinking: the value of the relationship with a larger enterprise; the settings in which work is done; the organization of workflows and how individual contributors add value; the technologies used to support higher achievement; and the degree to which employment arrangements are tailored to individuals. The three waves of transformation surge forward at differing velocities across sectors and geographies and mix together in societies. Understanding how your business participates in each wave will help you make wise decisions about technology, work models, talent sources, and people practices.

Jordan, J. W. (2003). Sabotage or performed compliance: Rhetorics of resistance in temp worker discourse. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 89, 19–40.
theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Resistance in temporary work
power and identity
performativity

Quarterly Journal of Speech
2003
This essay analyzes contemporary temporary employment texts and the competing rhetorical definitions that shape the meanings of employment and identity in the contingent economy. Arguing against resistant labor rhetoric that is ill-suited to present conditions of temp work, the author locates and advocates a rhetoric of “performativity” that enables temps to carve out their own definitional territory and seek advantage within an oppressive management culture. Ultimately, rhetorical tactics of performativity enable resistant practices that are better suited to contingent situations, and show promise for new conceptions of identity for these and other disenfranchised members of the U.S. workforce. Key words: temporary employment, rhetoric, performativity, identity, resistance.

Jurik, N. C. (1998). Getting away and getting by: The experiences of self-employed homeworkers. Work and Occupations, 25, 7–35.
empirical
Interview
qualitative
self employed homeworkers
home-based, self-employed professional, domestic service, or craft production ventures.
self employed homeworkers
emancipatory and restrictive dimensions of self-employed remote work
autonomy paradox
demographic differences in non-standard work

N/A

Work and Occupations
1998
This article examines the emancipatory and restrictive dimensions of self-employed homework. The analysis is based on in-depth interviews with 46 individuals, predominantly women, who work in home-based, self-employed professional, domestic service, or craft production ventures. In line with predictions that self-employed homework is liberating to workers, most respondents viewed self-employed homework as a means for breaking away from traditional employment options. Mothers also hoped to combine paid work and child care. However, in line with exploitation hypotheses, findings indicate that the profit requirements of doing business and conflicts between work and family demands led respondents to replicate at home some of the negative, exploitative work arrangements that they tried to escape. The social location of respondents, which included gender, family status, resources, and race-ethnicity as well as local and regional economic conditions, varied respondents' experiences of self-employed homework and their strategies for confronting dilemmas.

Kahn, W. A. (2002). Managing the paradox of self-reliance. Organizational Dynamics, 30, 239-256.
empirical
Interview
qualitative

senior managers of three highly effective decentralized units of different organizations
managers of remote workers
control of remote-workers
autonomy paradox
flexibility
self-reliance
N/A
peer reviewed
Organizational Dynamics
2002
There is a paradox at the heart of self-reliance: people are only capable of being fully self-reliant when they feel securely attached to trust others. This is the central paradox that managers increasingly face- how to support others who must rely mostly on themselves, without retreating to the traditionally controlling managerial stance. This report focuses on what effective managers in decentralized systems do to manage this paradox. A study of the senior managers of three highly effective decentralized units of different organizations indicates that such tasks involve relational work, whereby managers build and deepen various types of relationships to sustain the self-reliance of their employees.

Kalleberg, A. L. (2000). Nonstandard employment relations: Part-time, temporary and contract work. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 341-365.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
trends and research agenda

contingent work; part-time work; temporary work; contract work.
peer reviewed
Annual Review of Sociology
2000
Nonstandard employment relations—such as part-time work, temporary help agency and contract company employment, short-term and contingent work, and independent contracting—have become increasingly prominent ways of organizing work in recent years. Our understanding of these nonstandard work arrangements has been hampered by inconsistent definitions, often inadequate measures, and the paucity of comparative research. This chapter reviews the emerging research on these nonstandard work arrangements. The review emphasizes the multidisciplinary nature of contributions to this field, including research by a variety of sociologists, economists, and psychologists. It also focuses on cross-national research, which is needed to investigate how macroeconomic, political, and institutional factors affect the nature of employment relations. Areas for future research are suggested.

Kalleberg, A. L. (2009). Precarious work, insecure workers: Employment relations in transition. American Sociological Review, 74, 1-22.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Precarity and insecurity
reasons for grwoth of precarity

peer reviewed
American Sociological Review
2009
The growth of precarious work since the 1970s has emerged as a core contemporary concern within politics, in the media, and among researchers. Uncertain and unpredictable work contrasts with the relative security that characterized the three decades following World War II. Precarious work constitutes a global challenge that has a wide range of consequences cutting across many areas of concern to sociologists. Hence, it is increasingly important to understand the new workplace arrangements that generate precarious work and worker insecurity. A focus on employment relations forms the foundation of theories of the institutions and structures that generate precarious work and the cultural and individual factors that influence people’s responses to uncertainty. Sociologists are well-positioned to explain, offer insight, and provide input into public policy about such changes and the state of contemporary employment relations

Kalleberg, A. L., Reskin, B. F., & Hudson, K. (2000). Bad jobs in America: Standard and nonstandard employment relations and job quality in the United States. American Sociological Review, 65, 256–278.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
1995 Current Population Survey
National survey
on-call work and day labor, temporary-help agency employment, employment with contract companies, independent contracting, other self-employment
non-standard work and low pay, lack of benefits and insurance

peer reviewed
American Sociological Review
2000
The prevalence of nonstandard jobs is a matter of concern if as many assume, such jobs are bad. We examine the relationship between nonstandard employment (on-call work and day labor, temporary-help agency employment, employment with contract companies, independent contracting, other self-employment, and part-time employ- ment in "conventional" jobs) and exposure to "bad" job characteristics, using data from the 1995 Current Population Survey. Of workers age 18 and over, 31 percent are in some type of nonstandard employment. To assess the link between type of employment and bad jobs, we conceptualize "bad jobs" as those with low pay and without access to health insurance and pension benefits. About one in seven jobs in the United States is bad on these three dimensions. Nonstandard employment strongly increases workers' exposure to bad job characteristics, net of controls for workers'personal characteristics, family status, occupation, and industry.

Kallinikos, J. (2003). Work, human agency, and organizational forms: An anatomy of fragmentation. Organization Studies, 24, 595–618.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
non-standard work and human agency
Autonomy paradox

bureaucracy, contingency, employment and organizational forms, human agency, selectivity, work
peer reviewed
American Sociological Review
2000
This article is concerned with the changing premises of human involvement in organizations underlying current employment and labour trends. The appreciation of these trends is placed in the wider historical context signified by the advent of modernity and the diffusion of the bureaucratic form of organization. The article attempts to dissociate bureaucracy from the dominant connotations of centralized and rigid organizational arrangements. It identifies the distinctive mark of the modern workplace with the crucial fact that it admits human involvement in non-inclusive terms. Modern humans are involved in organizations qua roles, rather than qua persons. Innocent as it may seem, the separation of the role from the person has been instrumental to the construction of modern forms of human agency. An organizational anthropology is thereafter outlined based on Gellner’s conception of ‘Modular Man’. Modernity and bureaucracy construe human beings as assemblages of relatively independent behavioural modules that can be invoked individually or in combination to respond to the differentiated character of the contemporary world. While the occupational mobility and organizational flexibility currently under way presuppose a model of human agency that recounts basic attributes of the modular human, they at the same time challenge it in some important respects

Kang, S. K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2015). Multiple identities in social perception and interaction: Challenges and opportunities. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 547–574.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
multiple identities opportunities

crossed categorization, social identity, social cognition, person perception, diversity, discrimination
peer reviewed
Annual Review of Psychology
2015
Categorization plays a fundamental role in organizing daily interactions with the social world. However, there is increasing recognition that social categorization is often complex, both because category membership can be ambiguous (e.g., multiracial or transgender identities) and because different categorical identities (e.g., race and gender) may interact to determine the meaning of category membership. These complex identities simultaneously impact social perceivers' impressions and social targets' own experiences of identity, thereby shaping perceptions, experiences, and interactions in fundamental ways. This review examines recent research on the perception and experience of the complex, multifaceted identities that both complicate and enrich our lives. Although research has historically tended to focus more on difficulties and challenges associated with multiple identities, increasing attention is being paid to opportunities that emerge from the possession of identities that include multiple distinct or overlapping groups. We consider how these opportunities might benefit both perceivers and targets.

Kark, R., & Carmeli, A. (2009). Alive and creating: The mediating role of vitality and aliveness in the relationship between psychological safety and creative work involvement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 785-804.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
part-time graduate students who held managerial and nonmanagerial position in their work organizations
manager and non-managers
employees
Psychological safety and feeling of vitality
Feeling of vitality and involvement in creativity

peer reviewed
Journal of Organizational Behavior
2009
Individual involvement in creative work is of crucial importance for organizations in a knowledge-based economy. This study examined how psychological safety induces feelings of vitality and how feelings of vitality impact one’s involvement in creative work. We examined these relationships among 128 part-time graduate students who held managerial and nonmanagerial position in their work organizations. The results suggest that employees’ sense of psychological safety is significantly associated with feelings of vitality (both collected at time 1), which, in turn, result in involvement in creative work (collected at time 2). We discuss the implications of these findings for both theory and practice.

Katz, J. A. (1993). How satisfied are the self-employed: A secondary analysis approach. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 7, 35–51.
empirical
Secondary analysis
quantitative
self employed

self employed
Self-employmnet and job satisfaction

peer reviewed
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice
1993
Researchers from diverse disciplines have come to the conclusion that the self-employed should be more satisfied than the wage-or-salarled, but the samples used In these studies are largely Inadequate for generalizations. Studies using representative samples have disagreed on this important point. Naughton's (1987a & b) results generally supported the higher job satisfaction of the self-employed, but these findings were at odds with the implications of a similar representative sample study by Eden (1975). The idea of secondary analysis In replication research is introduced and applied to entrepreneurship research. The process and problems encountered In replicating the two studies, and the decisions made to resolve conflicts between the studies are discussed as examples of the problems secondary analysts face. Explanations for the divergent findings and implications for fostering secondary analysis approaches in entrepreneurship are discussed.

Katz, L. F., & Krueger, A. B. (2016). The rise and nature of alternative work arrangements in the United States, 1995–2015. Working paper no. 22667, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
review (stats)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
trends
statistics

To monitor trends in alternative work arrangements, the authors conducted a version of the Contingent Worker Survey as part of the RAND American Life Panel in late 2015. Their findings point to a rise in the incidence of alternative work arrangements in the US economy from 1995 to 2015. The percentage of workers engaged in alternative work arrangements—defined as temporary help agency workers, on-call workers, contract workers, and independent contractors or freelancers—rose from 10.7% in February 2005 to possibly as high as 15.8% in late 2015. Workers who provide services through online intermediaries, such as Uber or TaskRabbit, accounted for 0.5% of all workers in 2015. Of the workers selling goods or services directly to customers, approximately twice as many reported finding customers through off-line intermediaries than through online intermediaries.

Krausz, M. (2000). Effects of short- and long-term preference for temporary work upon psychological outcomes. International Journal of Manpower, 21, 635–647.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
Temporary help workers
help workers
temporary workers
voluntary and involuntary temporary help work and job satisfaction

peer reviewed
International Journal of Manpower
2000
The study examined differences between voluntary and involuntary Canadian (N = 224) temporary help employees (THEs). The hypotheses stated that compared to involuntary THEs, voluntary THEs, particularly those who see it as a long‐term employment arrangement, are more satisfied and involved and less stressed. Results supported most of the hypotheses. Long‐term THEs were higher in overall satisfaction and in two of three measures of facet satisfaction. They were also lower in role conflict and role ambiguity. Analyses rule out the possibility that the results merely express adaptation of attitudes to imposed employment realities. It was also found that involuntary THEs prefer long assignments with a single client‐company whereas voluntary THEs prefer the variety associated with short‐term assignments. Few male (21.5 per cent of the sample) and female differences in outcome measures were found. Implications for client companies, for human resource agencies, and for individual employees are suggested.

Krishnan, P. (1990). The economics of moonlighting: A double self-selection model. Review of Economics and Statistics, 72, 361-367.
empirical
Survey
quantitative
double job holders
varies
double job holders
dual earner families
moonlighting

Review of Economics and Statistics
1990
The model proposed here for obtaining the labor supply functions of moonlighters uses a double self-selection system to explore the husband's decision to moonlight to- gether with his wife's decision to work. Subsequently, the labor functions are classified under two regimes depending on whether the wife works. The model is estimated based on a cross-section of 4,448 married couples from the Survey of Income and Program Participation, Wave 2. I find that the household production time of husbands and wives are substi- tutes and that specific human capital deters moonlighting.

Kunda, G. & Van Maanen, J. (1999). Changing scripts at work: Managers and professionals. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 561(1), 64-80.
empirical
archival data
qualitative
Managers and professionals
Managers and professionals
Managers and professionals
emotional labour and change in the structure of work
emotional labour and culture, loyalty, and commitment
emotional labour and marketization of labour

American Academy of Political and Social Science
1999
In this article, the authors explore how structural changes in the labor market for professional and managerial employ- ees might be changing the nature of emotional labor required in these occupations. They first draw on ethnographic data in a firm noted for stable long-term employment to illustrate how efforts to create a corporate culture focus on shaping employees’ emotional labor toward displays of loyalty and commitment to their employer. This is followed by a speculative analysis of how the current shift toward market-based forms of employment and an entrepreneurial work ethic is changing both the substance and the style of emotional labor.

Kunda, G., Barley, S. R., & Evans, J. A. (2002). Why do contractors contract? The experience of highly skilled technical professionals in a contingent labor market. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 55, 234–261.
empirical
Interview
qualitative (interview)
technical contractors
technical contractors
technical contractors
Motivation for contingent work
anxiety and estrangement in independent work
autonomy paradox
triadic relationship

Industrial and Labor Relations Review
2002
This study examines 52 highly skilled technical contractors' explanations, in
1998, of why they entered the contingent labor force and how their subsequent
experiences altered their viewpoint. The authors report three general implications of their examination of the little-studied high-skill side of contingent
labor. First, current depictions of contingent work are inaccurate. For example,
contrary to the pessimistic "employment relations" perspective, most of these
interviewees found contracting better-paying than permanent employment; and
contrary to optimistic "free agent" views, many reported feeling anxiety and
estrangement. Second, occupational networks arose to satisfy needs (such as
training and wage-setting) that employing organizations satisfy for non-contingent workers. Third, regarding their place in the labor market, high-skilled and
well-paid technical contractors cannot be called-as contingent workers usually
are-"secondary sector" workers; and their market is not dyadic, with individuals selling labor and firms buying it, but triadic, involving intermediaries such
as staffing firms.

Kurland, N. B., & Bailey, D. E. (1999, Autumn). The advantages and challenges of working here, there, anywhere, and anytime. Organizational Dynamics, 53–67.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
telework challenges
telework opportunities
future of telework

Organizational Dynamics
1999

Lambert, B., Keplinger, K., & Cropanzano, R. (2018). A new way of working: Towards a theory of the gig economy. Paper presented at Academy of Management Annual Conference 2018.

2018

Lautsch, B. A. (2002). Uncovering and explaining variance in the features and outcomes of contingent work. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 56, 23–43.
empirical
interview
qualitative
regular and contingent workers, as well as union leaders and managers at all levels
publishing, finance, real-estate, and utility operations, development and manufacturing operations.
regular and contingent workers and their managers
contingent work and management practices
variance in outcomes of contingent work

Industrial and Labor Relations Review
2002
Existing research tends to depict contingent work either as having similar implications for firms and workers in all settings or as varying in its implications depending only on contingent workers' occupation or personal characteristics. In contrast, the author of this paper identifies systematic differences in contingent jobs across organizational contexts that are due to the strategies and practices of management. She uses internal labor market theory and data collected from two comparative case studies, both conducted in 1996-97, to develop four distinct models of how contingent work may be managed. Each of the contingent employment subsystems had distinct practices-related to job definitions, wage rules, and deployment through career ladders-put in place by management in response to technological factors and performance objectives. Each also raised challenges for integrating regular and contingent workers and generated trade-offs for both groups of workers as well as for th

Lee, M. K., Kusbit, D., Metsky, E., & Dabbish, L. (2015). Working with machines: The impact of algorithmic, data-driven management on human workers. Proceedings of the ACM/SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2015), 1603-1612.
empirical
interview
qualitative
Uber and Lyft drivers
drivers
platform workers
Impact of algorithmic management on workers
collective sense-making in response to algorithms

Algorithm; algorithmic management; human-centered algorithms; intelligent systems; CSCW; on-demand work; sharing economies; data-driven metrics; work assignment; performance evaluation; dynamic pricing; sensemaking.

Proceedings of the ACM/SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
2015
Software algorithms are changing how people work in an ever-growing number of fields, managing distributed human workers at a large scale. In these work settings, human jobs are assigned, optimized, and evaluated through algorithms and tracked data. We explored the impact of this algorithmic, data-driven management on human workers and work practices in the context of Uber and Lyft, new ridesharing services. Our findings from a qualitative study describe how drivers responded when algorithms assigned work, provided informational support, and evaluated their performance, and how drivers used online forums to socially make sense of the algorithm features. Implications and future work are discussed

Lee, T. W., & Johnson, D. R. (1991). The effects of work schedule and employment status on the organizational commitment and job satisfaction of full versus part-time employees. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 38, 208–224.
empirical
archival data (survey)
quantitative
Full-time and part-time workers U.S. National Park Service
U.S. National Park Service employees
Full-time and part-time workers
commitment and job satisfaction comparison

Journal of Vocational Behavior
1991
Theoretical explanations for the differences in organizational commitment and job satisfaction between full versus part time employees were deduced. With the intent of resolving inconsistencies in the research, these deductions were empirically tested. Whereas full time employees were hypothesized to hold higher commitment than part time workers when these groups worked a preferred schedule, full time employees were hypothesized to hold lower organizational commitment and job satisfaction than part time workers when these groups worked an unpreferred schedule. The results supported the hypotheses among temporary employees but only partially supported the hypotheses among permanent workers. Implications are discussed.

Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Kraimer, M. L. (2003). The dual commitments of contingent workers: An examination of contingents' commitment to the agency and the organization. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 609–625.
empirical
survey
quantitative
contingent workers assigned by one of five temporary agencies to a large manufacturing organization
programmer, systems engineer, publishing, and administrative assistant
contingent workers
commitment, OCB, percieved organizational support of contingent workers
procedural justice and contingent work outcomes

Journal of Organizational Behavior
2003
A model based on social exchange theory was developed to examine antecedents and consequences of contingent workers’ commitment to their agencies and their client companies. In terms of antecedents, it was hypothesized that organization (client) procedural justice would be positively related to perceived organizational support (client), which in turn would be positively related to commitment to the client organization. Similarly, we proposed that agency procedural justice would be positively related to perceived agency support, which in turn would be positively related to commitment to the agency. Regarding the consequences, client organization commitment was hypothesized to be positively related to managerial ratings of contingents’ altruistic organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) and managers’ perceptions of contingents’ commitment to the client company. Finally, whether agency commitment ‘spills over’ to influence managers’ perceptions of contingents’ commitment to the client organization was examined. Using a sample of 98 contingent workers with matched data from their managers at the client organization and structural equation modeling analyses, we found support for all of the hypothesized relationships.

Linville, P. W. (1985). Self-complexity and affective extremity: Don’t put all of your eggs in one cognitive basket. Social Cognition, 3, 94-120.
empirical
experiment
quantitative
students
students
students
Self complexity and vulnerability to life events
distinction between diferent identities and vulnerability
multiple identites and resilience

Social Cognition
1985
This research develops and tests a model relating complexity ot self-representation to affective and evaluative responses. The basic hypothesis is that the less complex a person's cognitive representation of the self, the more extreme will be the per son's swings in affect and self-appraisal. Experiment 1 showed that those lower in self-complexity experienced greater swings in affect and self-appraisal following a failure or success experience. Experiment 2 showed that those lower in self-com plexity experienced greater variability in affect over a 2-week period. The results are discussed, first, in terms of self-complexity as a buffer against the negative effects of stressful life events, particularly depression; and, second, in terms of the thought patterns of depressed persons. The results reported here suggest that level of selfcomplexity may provide a promising cognitive marker for vulnerability to depression.

Linville, P. W. (1987). Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 663-676.
empirical
Survey (longitudinal)
quantitative
students
students
students
Self complexity and vulnerability to life events
distinction between diferent identities and vulnerability
multiple identites and resilience

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1987
N/A

Logan, N., O’Reilly, C. A., & Roberts, K. H. (1973). Job satisfaction among part-time and full-time employees. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 3, 33–41.
empirical
survey
quantitative

part time and fill time workers
Vriation in job satisfaction based on frames of reference

Journal of Vocational Behavior
1973
Data were collected from 151 part-time and full-time hospital workers to show that various groups of employees bring to their jobs different frames of reference. They consequently have different expectations and derive different satisfactions from their jobs. Examining satisfaction patterns for various employee groups is the appropriate strategy for understanding job satisfaction.

Mallon, M. (1998). The portfolio career: Pushed or pulled to it?. Personnel Review, 27, 361–377.
empirical
intreview
qualitative
ex‐managers from the public sector

ex managers Independent workers
Pushed or pulled
voluntary or involuntary independent work
change to portfolio career

Personnel Review
1998
N/A

Mallon, M., & Duberley, J. (2000). Managers and professionals in the contingent workforce. Human Resource Management Journal, 10, 33–47.
empirical
intreview
qualitative
ex-managers from the British National Health Service (NHS)

ex managers Independent workers
change to portfolio career

Human Resource Management Journal
2000
Despite the manifest importance of a growing trend in managers and professionals operating as contingent workers within organizations, there is little research about the needs and wants of these contingent workers. A study of 25 ex-managers from the British National Health Service who left the organization and opted for a portfolio of contingent work arrangements, often returning to work on a freelance or temporary basis, is presented.

Malone, T. W., Yates, J., & Benjamin, R. I. 1987. Electronic markets and electronic hierarchies. Communications of the ACM, 30, 484-497.
theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
advances in information technology and firm and market structures a
advances in information technology and strategy
markets and hierarchies

Communications of the ACM
1987
The innovations in information technologies of the past two decades have radically reduced the time and cost of processing and communicating information. These reductions have in turn brought many changes in the ways tasks are accomplished within firms. Data-processing systems have transformed the ways in which accounting data are gathered and processed, for example, and CAD/CAM has transformed the ways in which complex machinery is designed. Underlying (and often obscured by) these changes may be more fundamental changes in how firms and markets organize the flow of goods and services through their value-added chains (e.g., see [34]). In this paper we address the more basic issue of how advances in information technology are affecting firm and market structures and discuss the options these changes present for corporate strategies.

Mann, S., & Holdsworth, L. (2003). The psychological impact of teleworking: Stress, emotions and health. New Technology, Work, & Employment, 18, 196–211.
empirical
intreview
qualitative
Full-time teleworker journalists
journalists
Full-time teleworker
telework challenges
telework and stress
telework and emotional implications
telework and lonliness, guilt, resentment, frustration, and enjoyment

New Technology, Work, & Employment,
2003
The paper examines the psychological impact of teleworking compared to office-based work. Results suggest a negative emotional impact of teleworking, particularly in terms of such emotions as loneliness, irritability, worry and guilt, and that teleworkers experience significantly more mental health symptoms of stress than office-workers and slightly more physical health symptoms.

Mann, S., Varey, R., & Button, W. (2000). An exploration of the emotional impact of tele-working via computer-mediated communication. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15, 668–690.
empirical
intreview
qualitative
teleworkers in banking
banking
teleworkers
telework and emotional implications

Homeworking, technology, work psychology, telecommunications, banking

Journal of Managerial Psychology
2000
The practice of tele‐ or home‐working, has been adopted by an increasing number of companies and workers in response to the changing economic and social needs that characterise the world of work today. Working from home brings new challenges as well as benefits, and a variety of studies have examined the impact of tele‐working in terms of such benefits and costs. Few studies, however, have focused on the emotional impact that working away from the office may have on workers as they cope with new technologies, reduced support, increased social isolation and other changes. This neglect of the feelings of workers reflects a somewhat wider neglect in the arena of emotion at work in general. The present study aims to redress this balance through a qualitative pilot study that examines the changing emotions that tele‐workers experience. The implications of the study for tele‐workers and managers are outlined.

Marks, S. R. (1977). Multiple roles and role strain: Some notes on human energy, time and commitment. American Sociological Review, 42, 921–936.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
expansion approach to human energey
multiple roles as a source of energy
multiple identites and resilience

American Sociological Review
1977
Sociologists generally invoke a natural "scarcity" approach to human energy, stressing the overdemanding nature of multiple roles. In contrast, a seldom used "expansion" approach provides an energy-creation theory of multiple roles rather than a "spending" or "drain" theory. Empirical literature only partially supports the scarcity approach view that multiple roles inevitably create "strain." Moreover, human physiology implies that human activity produces as well as consumes energy. We need a comprehensive theory that explains both the scarcity and the abundance phenomenology of energy. Such a theory requires careful ana- lytical distinctions between time, energy, and commitments. It is argued that particular types of commitment systems are responsible for whether or not strain will occur. A theory of scarcity excuses explains how strain or overload is generally rooted in one such system. Scarcity excuses get implicit support from scarcity theories, and a sociology of these theories suggests their ideological basis.

Marler, J. H., Barringer, M. W., & Milkovich, G. T. (2002). Boundaryless and traditional contingent employees: Worlds apart. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 425–453.
empirical
survey
quantitative
Current Population Survey’s (CPS) Contingent Work Supplement
national survey skilled temporary workers
temporary workers
high skilled temporary workers
autonomy
boundaryless careers and organizations

Journal of Organizational Behavior
2002
We find support for distinguishing between two types of contingent workers: boundaryless and traditional. The existence of these two types helps explain the conflicting views about contingent work in the literature. Using hierarchical cluster and multivariate analysis on a national survey of 614, and a regional sample of 276 temporary employees, we also find that these two types exhibit different work attitudes and behaviors. What distinguishes boundaryless temporaries from others is their preference for temporary work and level of skill and experience. Results also show that the performance of traditional temporaries is more sensitive to attitudes than boundaryless temporaries. After controlling for level of work satisfaction, traditional temporaries reported higher task and contextual performance. We discuss the implications of these findings for theory development, organization practice and public policy.

Martin, J. E., & Peterson, M. M. (1987). Two-tier wage structures: Implications for equity theory. Academy of Management Journal, 30, 297–315.
empirical
survey
quantitative
retail employees
retail
employees
two tier wage structure and equality theory

Academy of Management Journal
1987
This study is an application of equity theory to an examination of the effects of implementing a two-tier wage structure. Using data from 1,935 employees in retail stores, we assessed commitment to union and employer, perceived pay equity, and the union's perceived instrumen- tality regarding pay. Significant multivariate and univariate differences emerged for wage tier, part- or full-time status, and-among low-tier employees-work location. Results generally suggest that equity theory appears as a

Matusik, S. F., & Hill, C. W. L. (1998). The utilization of contingent work, knowledge creation, and competitive advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23, 680–697.
theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
contingent work and firm's comptetitive advantage
contingent work and firm's knowledge creation and accumalation

Academy of Management Review
1998
Contingent work is an increasingly integral part of the world of work, affecting firms' abilities to accumulate knowledge, create value, and establish competitive advan- tage. Although its growing use reflects a belief that firms can reduce cost structures and increase strategic flexibility, we suggest that in certain contexts, such as dynamic environments, contingent work can be a means of accumulating and creating valu- able knowledge. We also discuss implications for other forms of permeable organi- zational boundaries.

Mazmanian, M., Orlikowski, W. J. & Yates, J. (2013). The autonomy paradox: The implications of mobile email devices for knowledge professionals. Organization Science, 24, 1337-1357.
empirical
Interview
qualitative
Knowledge professionals
Knowledge professionals
employees
Autonomy paradox
technology and autonomy

Organization Science
2013
Our research examines how knowledge professionals use mobile email devices to get their work done and the implications of such use for their autonomy to control the location, timing, and performance of work. We found that knowledge professionals using mobile email devices to manage their communication were enacting a norm of continual connectivity and accessibility that produced a number of contradictory outcomes. Although individual use of mobile email devices offered these professionals flexibility, peace of mind, and control over interactions in the short term, it also intensified collective expectations of their availability, escalating their engagement and thus reducing their ability to disconnect from work. Choosing to use their mobile email devices to work anywhere/anytime—actions they framed as evidence of their personal autonomy—the professionals were ending up using it everywhere/all the time, thus diminishing their autonomy in practice. This autonomy paradox reflected professionals’ ongoing navigation of the tension between their interests in personal autonomy on the one hand and their professional commitment to colleagues and clients on the other. We further found that this dynamic has important unintended consequences—reaffirming and challenging workers’ sense of themselves as autonomous and responsible professionals while also collectively shifting the norms of how work is and should be performed in the contemporary workplace.

McDonald, D. J., & Makin, P. J. (2000). The psychological contract, organizational commitment and job satisfaction of temporary staff. Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, 21(2), 84–91.
empirical
survey
quantitative
temporary and permanent customer service employees
customer service
temporary and permanent employees
psychological contract, organizational commitment and job satisfaction of temporary staff
comparison of full-time and part-time workers

work psychology, commitment, job satisfaction, temporary workers, United Kingdom

Leadership and Organizational Development Journal
2000
The proportion of the workforce on temporary contracts of employment is increasing, as organisations use non‐permanent staff as a flexible resource. Rousseau and Wade‐Benzoni suggested such temporary staff have a different psychological contract with the organisation than their permanent counterparts. Temporary staff, it is argued, will have a transactional contract, with the emphasis upon the economic elements of the contract while permanent staff will have a more relational contract, involving commitment to the organisation, and an interest in a satisfying job. These differences, it is argued, will influence staff attitudes and behaviour. The article tests these suggestions on employees of a large holiday sector organisation. The results present a consistent picture, at variance with the above suggestions. The levels of relational and transactional contracts of permanent and temporary staff did not differ significantly. In addition they had higher, rather than lower, levels of job satisfaction and commitment to the organisation.

McGinnis, S. K., & Morrow, P. C. (1990). Job attitudes among full- and part-time employees. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 36, 82–96.
empirical
survey
quantitative
full-time and part time workers in hospital
hospital workers
Full-time and part-time workers
comparison of full-time and part-time workers
job attitude in full time and part-time workers

Journal of Vocational Behavior
1990
Many researchers have speculated that full- and part-time workers differ in ways that influence job attitudes. Empirical findings related to this contention have been mixed and conflicting. In view of this research and in the absence of strong theoretical justification, it was hypothesized that employment status is unrelated to facets of job satisfaction, work commitment, and perceptions of organizational climate. Results from a sample of 350 hospital employees support this contention. In addition, shift assignment was observed to be unrelated to job attitudes. The findings suggest that employment status may not be a useful predictor of work-related attitudes and that future investigation of potential differences between full- and part-time workers should include a wider variety of factors.

McKinsey & Co. (2016). Independent work: Choice, necessity, and the gig economy. New York: McKinsey Global Institute.
review (stats)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
segmentation of indpendent workers
voluntary or involuntary independent work
challenges and opportunities of independent work
statistics

N/A
2016
N/A

McLean Parks, J., Kidder, D. L., & Gallagher, D. G. (1998). Fitting square pegs into round holes: Mapping the domain of contingent work arrangements onto the psychological contract. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19, 697–730.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
psychological contract and contingent work

Journal of Organizational Behavior
1998
In this paper, we have endeavored to integrate the literature on psychological contracts with the literature on contingent work arrangements. We have further developed the theoretical foundation of the psychological contract and its dimensions. After reviewing previous work on contingent employment, we illustrate how the dimensions of psychological contracts (stability, scope, tangibility, focus, time frame, particularism, multiple agency and volition) highlight the di�erences and similarities among alternative employment arrangements in a meaningful and parsimonious manner. In doing so, we have sought to o�er an alternative to the categorization of employment arrangements that has, thus far, made comparisons across studies di�cult. In addition, we argue that the dimensions of psychological contracts, more so than the content of these contracts, are more generalizable across various types of work arrangements, as well as across di�erent types of jobs and across national boundaries.

Menger, P. (1999). Artistic labor markets and careers. Annual Review of Sociology, 25, 541–574.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
artisitic work and uncertainty
multiple job holdings
oversupply of workers

uncertainty; occupational choice; multiple job; oversupply.

Annual Review of Sociology
1999
Artistic labor markets are puzzling ones. Employment as well as unemployment are increasing simultaneously. Uncertainty acts not only as a substantive condition of innovation and self-achievement, but also as a lure. Learning by doing plays such a decisive role that in many artworlds initial training is an imperfect filtering device. The attractiveness of artistic occupations is high but has to be balanced against the risk of failure and of an unsuccessful professionalization that turns ideally non-routine jobs into ordinary or ephemeral undertakings. Earnings distributions are extremely skewed. Risk has to be managed, mainly through flexibility and cost reducing means at the organizational level and through multiple job holding at the individual level. Job rationing and an excess supply of artists seem to be structural traits associated with the emergence and the expansion of a free market organization of the arts.

Mirchandani, K. (1999). Legitimizing work: Telework and the gendered reification of the work-nonwork dichotomy. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 36, 87–107.
empirical
interview
qualitative
remote workers
professional or managerial employees
remote workers
public-private dichotomy of work
gender and remote work
femenist view on remote work

The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology
1999
N/A

Newlands, G., Lutz, C., & Fieseler, C. (2018). Collective action and provider classification in the gig economy. New Technology, Work and Employment, 33, 250-267.
empirical
survey
quantitative
consumers and providers of sharing economy
Airbnb, Uber and BlaBlaCar
consumers and providers of sharing economy
collective action in the sharing economy
reasons for collective inaction in the sharing economy
narrative of voluntariness in independent work and collective inaction
influx of new
providers, the difficulty of organising in purely virtual settings and collective inaction
collective action, informal employment, occupational identity, online communities, sharing economy, trade unionism.

New Technology, Work and Employment
2018
Conditions in the sharing economy are often favourably designed for consumers and platforms but entail new challenges for the labour side, such as substandard socialsecurity and rigid forms of algorithmic management. Since comparatively little is known about how providers in the sharing economy make their voices heard collectively, we investigate their opinions and behaviours regarding collective action and perceived solidarities. Using cluster analysis on representative data from across 12 European countries, we determine five distinct types of labour-activists, ranging from those opposed to any forms of collective action to those enthusiastic to organise and correct perceived wrongs. We conclude by conjecturing that the still-ongoing influx of new providers, the difficulty of organising in purely virtual settings, combined with the narrative of voluntariness of participation and hedonic gratifications might be responsible for the inaction of large parts of the provider base in collectivist activities

Norman, P., Collins, S., Conner, M., Martin, R., & Rance, J. (1995). Attributions, cognitions, and coping styles: Teleworkers’ reactions to work-related problems. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25, 117–128.
empirical
survey
quantitative
teleworkers in a variety of jobs
publishing, engineering consultancy, sales and marketing, computer programming, and education.
teleworkers
teleworkers' reactions to work challenges
problem-focused coping style
emotion-focused working style

Journal of Applied Social Psychology
1995
Based on the attributional reformulation of learned helplessness theory (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978) and Lazarus and Launier’s (1978) primary-secondary appraisal theory of stress, the present study sought to examine teleworkers’ reactions to their work-related problems. The role of attributions about the sources, and cognitions about the consesquences, of these problems in promoting positive adaptation was addressed. In particular, it was predicted that teleworkers who made optimistic attributions and cognitions would be more likely to employ problem-focused coping strategies and, as a result, report more positive psychological and job-related outcomes. Based on a survey sample of 192 teleworkers, the results indicated that a tendency to engage in self-blame was related to the use of emotion-focused coping strategies. In turn, there was evidence linking emotion-focused coping strategies to negative outcomes and problem-focused coping strategies to positive outcomes. The results are discussed in relation to attributional approaches to stress which highlight the importance of cognitions about the consequences of negative events. Finally, implications for the training of teleworkers are presented.

Obodaru, O. (2017). Forgone, but not forgotten: Toward a theory of foregone professional identities. Academy of Management Journal, 60, 523-553.
empirical
interview
qualitative
employees in a headhunter company
varies
employees
forgone identities
identity enactment

Academy of Management Journal
2017
Through an inductive, qualitative study, I developed a process model of how people deal with professional identities they have forgone by choice or constraint. I show that, when forgone professional identities are linked to unfulfilled values, people look for ways to enact them and retain them in the self-concept. I further identify three strategies that people use to enact foregone professional identities: (1) real enactment (i.e., enacting the forgone identity through real activities and social interactions either at work or during leisure time), (2) imagined enactment (i.e., enacting the forgone identity through imagined activities and interactions, either in an alternate present or in the future), and (3) vicarious enactment (i.e., enacting the forgone identity by observing and imagining close others enacting it and internalizing these experiences). These findings expand our conceptualization of professional identity beyond identities enacted through activities and interactions that are part of formal work roles, and illuminate the key role of imagination and vicarious experiences in identity construction and maintenance.

Padavic, I. (2005). Laboring under uncertainty: Identity renegotiation among contingent workers. Symbolic Interaction, 28, 11-134.
empirical
interview
qualitative
Contingent workers in diverse jobs
varies
contingent workers
Precarious idenity
identity strategies
spoiled identity

Symbolic Interaction
2005
Relying on interviews with contingent workers in diverse jobs, this article explores the motivations underlying worker consent, in particular, workers’ commitment to employers who did little to encourage it. Driven by the need to address the “spoiled identity” problem brought on by contingent employment, workers engaged in identity-management strategies that included the following: defining a willingness to work hard rather than the job per se as determinative of personal value, asserting an alternative vocation as one’s appropriate identity-conferring occupation, and aligning with managers as a reference group. These strategies had the ideological effect of reaffirming a managerial ideology that hampered the ability to formulate a critique of existing employment relations. A much smaller group, made up of disillusioned day laborers with few illusions about middle-class respectability, rejected identity-management strategies and regarded their relationship with employers in the purely instrumental terms that the business press assumes would apply to all workers. The article concludes that cultural lag and the raw appeal of the notion of a caring employer may underlie the persistence of the accommodationist orientations displayed by most of these workers.

Parker, S. K., Griffin, M. A., Sprigg, C. A., & Wall, T. D. (2002). Effect of temporary contracts on perceived work characteristics and job strain: A longitudinal study. Personnel Psychology, 55, 689–719.
empirical
longitudinal survey
quanttitative (survey)

permanent and temporary workers
comparison between permanent and contingent employees
employment status and job strain

Personnel Psychology
2002
This longitudinal study investigates differences in perceived work characteristics and job strain as a function of employment status. The study examines the effects of a change from involuntary temporary to permanent status (N= 75) compared to staying permanent (N= 257), as well as comparing temporary contract and permanent contract employees at Time 1 and a second‐wave comparison that included new temporary contract employees (N= 92) and new permanent contract employees (N= 34). Results suggest that temporary employment status is associated with negative and positive consequences. On the negative side, temporary status reduced perceptions of job security and participative decision making, which had deleterious effects on job strain. On the other hand, temporary employees had fewer strain‐inducing role demands (in particular, lower role overload). The net effect was that temporary employees had lower job strain, which analyses suggested was due to indirect effects of the lower role demands.

Pasquale, F. (2017). Two narratives of platform capitalism. Yale Law & Policy Review, 35, 309-319.

Pearce, J. L. (1993). Toward an organizational behavior of contract laborers: Their psychological involvement and effects on employee co-workers. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 1082–1096.
empirical
survey
quanttitative

aerospce manufacturing

presence of contingent work and trustworthiness of organization
employment status and quasi-moral involvement
employment status nad task assignment

Academy of Management Journal
1993
This study investigated differences in the psychological involvement and task assignments of labor-contractor and employee engineers and the effects of the contractors on the attitudes of their employee co-workers. Findings partly supported the hypothesis that supervisors shift interdependent tasks to employees when contractors are present in their work groups. However, employees were not found to have greater quasi-moral involvement than contractors. In addition, the presence of contractor co-workers was associated with employee reports of lower organizational trustworthiness, as expected.

Pearce, J. L. (1998). Job insecurity is really important, but not for the reasons you might think: The example of contingent workers. In C. Cooper & D. Rousseau (Eds.), Trends in Organizational Behavior, vol. 5, 31–46. New York: Wiley.
empirical
survey
quanttitative
permanent and contingent software engineers
software engineers
permanent and contingent workers
job insecurity and satisfaction
relation of voluntary/ involuntary pursuit of temporary work with satisfaction
Job insecurity and performance
employment status nad task assignment

Trends in Organizational Behavior
1998
N/A

Pearlson, K. E., & Saunders, C. S. (2001). There's no place like home: Managing telecommuting paradoxes. Academy of Management Executive, 15, 117–128.
theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Paradoxes in new arrangements of work
autonomy paradox
paradox of structure and flexibility
paradox of individuals and teamwork

Academy of Management Executive
2001
Telecommuting has been around as a concept since the early 1970s. But the phenomenon has not caught on as fast as researchers projected, in part because of the inherent paradoxes associated with telecommuting. We explore three seemingly evident paradoxes of alternative work arrangements, particularly telecommuting: an increase in both structure and flexibility, a focus on both individuals and teamwork, and an increase and decrease in control. We view these paradoxes from a manager's perspective, and identify strategies for managing the paradoxes: accepting the paradox, clarifying the point of view, accounting for time, and using new perspectives. We apply these strategies to the three telecommuting paradoxes and illustrate them with examples of companies that use alternative work arrangements extensively. The article concludes with lessons for managing telecommuting arrangements.

Peipperl, M., & Baruch, Y. (1997). Back to square zero: The post-corporate career. Organizational Dynamics, 7–22.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
post-corporate career
identity construction independent work
trends

Organizational Dynamics
1997
The 'post-corporate world' is characterized by an increasing shift from big company career paths. A growing number of people, who were either forced out of the organization or left voluntarily, are moving out of large organizations and creating employment for themselves. Their new careers often offer them independence and flexibility to go after opportunities and demand. They are no longer motivated by promotions or new assignments, but by personal goals such as income creation, asset growth and business development. Individuals who have chosen to deviate from traditional career paths tend to develop a professional or industry identity instead of an organizational identity. They are also more likely to succeed in balancing their work and family lives. The implications of the emergence of post-organizational career for managers are discussed.

Peters, L. H., Jackofsky, E. F., & Salter, J. R. (1981). Predicting turnover: A comparison of part-time and full-time employees. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 2, 89–98.
empirical
survey
quanttitative
Full-time and part-time workers

Full-time and part-time workers
comparison of full-time and part-time workers
employment status and turnover

ournal of Occupational Behavior
1981
The predictability of turnover was compared for part-time versus full-time workers. This was accomplished using variables (1) that were hypothesized by Mobley (1977) to precede the turnover decision and (2) that have been shown in previous research to be significantly related to turnover. Measures of these variables were assessed via questionnaires following the second month of employment. Turnover was assessed directly from company records for a period of up to twelve months following employment. None of the hypothesized antecedent variables were significantly related to turnover within the part-time group. However, within the full-time group, all of the hypothesized precursors to turnover were found to be at least marginally related to actual turnover. Further, there was evidence to suggest differential predictability of turnover across full-time and part-time employment status groups, suggesting that the two groups may have a different 'psychology of work'. These results are discussed in terms of the supportive evidence provided.

Petriglieri, G., Ashford, S. J., & Wrzesniewski, A. (2019). Agony and ecstasy in the gig economy: Cultivating holding environments for precarious and personalized work identities. Administrative Science Quarterly, 64, 124-170.
empirical
interview
qualitative
independent workers
varies
independent workers
Precarious idenity
holding environment

Administrative Science Quarterly
2019
Building on an inductive, qualitative study of independent workers—people not affiliated with an organization or established profession—this paper develops a theory about the management of precarious and personalized work identities. We find that in the absence of organizational or professional membership, workers experience stark emotional tensions encompassing both the anxiety and fulfillment of working in precarious and personal conditions. Lacking the holding environment provided by an organization, the workers we studied endeavored to create one for themselves through cultivating connections to routines, places, people, and a broader purpose. These personal holding environments helped them manage the broad range of emotions stirred up by their precarious working lives and focus on producing work that let them define, express, and develop their selves. Thus holding environments transformed workers’ precariousness into a tolerable and even generative predicament. By clarifying the process through which people manage emotions associated with precarious and personalized work identities, and thereby render their work identities viable and their selves vital, this paper advances theorizing on the emotional underpinnings of identity work and the systems psychodynamics of independent work.

Polivka, A. E. (1996). Into contingent and alternative employment: By choice? Monthly Labor Review, 119(10), 55–74.
empirical
survey
quanttitative
current Population Survey’s (CPS) Contingent Work Supplement
varies
contingent workers
voluntary/ involuntary pursuit of contingen work
reasons for choosing contingent work

Monthly Labor Review
1996
Relatively few contingent workers are doing so involuntarily. Detailed surveys of contingent workers' job background, their most recent job search, and attitudes, from the Feb 1995 Current Population Survey, are analyzed. Little evidence exists to suggest that contingent employment is crowding out permanent jobs. Contingent employees with family or school obligations often use this path to employment as a means to employment that would otherwise be denied.

Polivka, A. E., & Nardone, T. (1989). On the definition of "contingent work." Monthly Labor Review, 112(12), 9–16.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
contingent work trends
contingent work reasons

Monthly Labor Review
1989
N/A

Pratt, M. G., & Rockmann, K. W. (2015). Contagious offsite work and the lonely office: The unintended consequences of distributed work. Academy of Management Discoveries, 1, 150-164.
empirical
interview
qualitative
remote workers in a high-tech company
tech workers
remote workers
remote work and loneliness
lonely office

Academy of Management Discoveries
2015
Research in the area of offsite work arrangements (telework, remote work, etc.) has generally been focused on understanding how the experience of being offsite changes work attitudes and performance. What has been largely neglected is an investigation of how offsite work changes the experience of being in the onsite office. In a qualitative study of a Fortune 100 company on the forefront of allowing offsite work, we examine how the prevalence of offsite working arrangements influences perceptions of the onsite office as well as decisions regarding where one works. We find that individuals desire a co-located office environment as an opportunity for both social ties and work collaborations. In this distributed organization, however, that opportunity is largely not present. Individuals are working offsite not only for many traditionally known reasons but also because of how they imagine others are making their work location decisions. In this way, offsite work is seemingly spreading in a contagious way: individuals choose to work offsite as coworkers are choosing to work offsite, a finding we support in a follow-up quantitative study. We suggest that work in this area refocus to include contagion effects of offsite work and the potential for negative effects of working in a depopulated onsite office.

Pratt, M. G., Rockmann, K. W., & Kaufmann, J. B. (2006). Constructing professional identity: The role of work and identity learning cycles in the customization of identity among medical residents. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 235-262.
empirical
interview
qualitative
medical residents
medical residents
employees
Identity construction
identity strategies

Academy of Management Journal
2006
Through a six-year qualitative study of medical residents, we build theory about professional identity construction. We found that identity construction was triggered by work-identity integrity violations: an experienced mismatch between what physi cians did and who they were. These violations were resolved through identity cus tomization processes (enriching, patching, or splinting), which were part of interre lated identity and work learning cycles. Implications of our findings (e.g., for member identification) for both theory and practice are discussed.

Raghuram, S., Wiesenfeld, B., & Garud, R. (2003). Technology enabled work: The role of self-efficacy in determining telecommuter adjustment and structuring behavior. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 180–198.
empirical
survey
quantitative

remote workers
self-efficacy and remote work outcomes
remote work frequency

Journal of Vocational Behavior
2003
We explore factors associated with employees’ ability to cope with the challenges of telecommuting—an increasingly pervasive new work mode enabled by advances in information technologies. Telecommuting can trigger important changes in employees’ job responsibilities, especially with respect to the degree of proactivity required to effectively work from a distance. Survey responses from a sample of 723 participants in one organization’s formal telecommuting program were used to examine the inter-relationships between telecommuter self-efficacy and extent of telecommuting on telecommuters’ ability to cope with this new work context. Results indicate that there is a positive association between telecommuter self-efficacy and both employees’ behavioral strategies (i.e., structuring behaviors) and work outcomes (i.e., telecommuter adjustment). Moreover, these positive relationships are accentuated for employees who telecommute more extensively. Implications for research and practice concerning the effect of technology on jobs and careers are presented.

Ramarajan, L. (2014). Past, present and future research on multiple identities: Toward an intrapersonal network approach. Academy of Management Annals, 8, 589–659.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
multiple identities
temporality and identity
intrapersonal identity network

Academy of Management Annals
2014
Psychologists, sociologists, and philosophers have long recognized that people
have multiple identities—based on attributes such as organizational membership, profession, gender, ethnicity, religion, nationality, and family role(s)— and that these multiple identities shape people’s actions in organizations.
The current organizational literature on multiple identities, however, is sparse and scattered and has yet to fully capture this foundational idea. I review and organize the literature on multiple identities into five different
theoretical perspectives: social psychological; microsociological; psychodynamic and developmental; critical; and intersectional. I then propose a way to take research on multiple identities forward using an intrapersonal identity
network approach. Moving to an identity network approach offers two advantages: first, it enables scholars to consider more than two identities simultaneously, and second, it helps scholars examine relationships among identities in greater detail. This is important because preliminary evidence suggests that multiple identities shape important outcomes in organizations,
such as individual stress and well-being, intergroup conflict, performance, and change. By providing a way to investigate patterns of relationships among multiple identities, the identity network approach can help scholars
deepen their understanding of the consequences of multiple identities in organizations and spark novel research questions in the organizational literature.

Rogers, J. K. (1995). Just a temp: Experience and structure of alienation in temporary clerical employment. Work and Occupations, 22, 137–166.
empirical
interview
qualitative
temporary clercial workers of service firms
clercial workers of service firms
temporary workers
experience of temporary work
empowering or constraining strategies of organizations
gender and temporary work
temp work implications for social equality

Work and Occupations
1995
N/A

Rothstein, D. S. (1996). Entry into and consequences of nonstandard work arrangements. Monthly Labor Review, 119(10), 75–82.
empirical
longitudinal survey
quanttitative (survey)
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
varies
National survey
family status and employment arrnagement

Monthly Labor Review
1996
Data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth suggest that recent occurrences such as the birth of a child or change in marital status can affect the likelihood of entering different types of employment arrangements

Rousseau, D. M., & Libuser, C. (1997). Contingent workers in high risk environments. California Management Review, 39, 103–123.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
contingent workers in hazardous environment

California Management Review
1997
The phenomenon has been labelled the “temping of America.”1 Increasing numbers of “disposable workers” (what academics refer to as “the contingent workforce”) have had a major impact on every aspect of
American working life, from career development to health care benefits. The contingent workforce comprises workers who provide their services to an employer on a short-term or periodic basis; it includes temporaries, independent contractors, and seasonal hires. The societal implications of this growing
phenomenon are only now surfacing and many unanswered questions remain.
Especially significant is the question of whether reliance on a contingent workforce has unanticipated consequences for the safety of the workers themselves and the firms that employ them. This article examines how the use of contingent workers affects safety and risk in hazardous work environments. Based on a review of studies conducted in two industries where increasing numbers of contingent workers are employed, this article identifies key risk factors and ways to reduce risk to workers by more effectively coordinating the use of contingent and non-contingent workers in hazardous settings.

Rousseau, D. M., Ho, V. T., & Greenberg, J. (2006). I-deals: Idiosyncratic terms in employment relationships. Academy of Management Review, 31, 977–994.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Functional and dysfunctional idiosyncratic employment arrangement

Academy of Management Review
2006
Idiosyncratic employment arrangements (i-deals) stand to benefit the individual em ployee as well as his or her employer. However, unless certain conditions apply, coworkers may respond negatively to these arrangements. We distinguish functional i-deals from their dysfunctional counterparts and highlight evidence of i-deals in previous organizational research. We develop propositions specifying both how i deals are formed and how they impact workers and coworkers. Finally, we outline the implications i-deals have for research and for managing contemporary employment relationships.

Rowlands, L., & Handy, J. (2012). An addictive environment: New Zealand film production workers’ subjective experiences of project-based labour. Human Relations, 65, 657–680.
empirical
interview
qualitative
freelance film production workers
film production workers
freelancers
addictive environment of creative work
Agony and Ecstacy
insecure work and work addiction

Human Relations
2012
This article uses the theoretical framework provided by social models of addiction to interpret freelance film production workers’ subjective experiences of project-based labour. The article suggests that the structural conditions of project-based labour within the film industry create a subjective experience in which the financial, creative, social and emotional rewards of employment are interspersed with the anxieties of repeated unemployment. The stark contrast between highly gratifying periods in work and highly aversive periods in between work produces an addictive psycho-social dynamic that repeatedly draws freelance production workers back into the industry. This process can only be fully understood by considering the relationship between employment conditions and subjective experiences as an integrated whole. The development of freelance film production workers’ addictive relationships with the film industry is illustrated using qualitative data from in-depth interviews with 11 male and 10 female New Zealand freelance film production workers.

Schultze, U. (2000). A confessional account of an ethnography about knowledge work. MIS Quarterly, 24, 3-42.
empirical
ethnography
qualitative
Knowledge workers
rs-computer system administrators, com- petitive intelligence analysts, and
Knowledge workers
Knowledge workers objectivity, and subjectivity

Social science, ethnography, evalu- ation criteria, practice, confessional genre of representation, objectivity, subjectivity, reflexivity, information, knowledge creat

MIS Quarterly
2000
Information systems research has traditionally
focused on information as an object that serves as
input to decision making. Such a perspective
attends mainly to the use of information. In-
creasingly, however, organizations are concerned
about the production of information. This paper
focuses on the work of producing informational
objects, an activity central to knowledge work.
Based on data collected during an eight-month
ethnographic study of three groups of knowledge
workers-computer system administrators, com-
petitive intelligence analysts, and librarians-I
explore the informing practices they relied upon.
These are identified as ex-pressing, monitoring,
and translating. Common to these informing prac-
tices is the knowledge workers' endeavor to
balance subjectivity and objectivity, where subjec-
tivity is a necessary part of doing value adding
work and objectivity promises workers authority
and a sense of secure. Recognizing that researchers are knowledge
workers too, I draw on my own experiences as an
ethnographic researcher to identify parallels
between my informing practices and those of the
knowledge workers I studied. These parallels are
intended to challenge the taken-for-granted
assumptions underlying scientificpractice. I adopt
a confessional genre of representation for this
purpose.

Shamir, B., & Salomon, I. (1985). Work-at-home and the quality of working life. Academy of Management Review, 10, 455-464.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
remote work and quality of working life
implications of quality of working life

Academy of Management Review
1985
Innovations in telecommunications technology increase the possibili- ties of working from the home. Implications of work-at-home arrange- ments for the individual's quality of working life are discussed. Included are discussions of several major aspects of the work experi- ence relevant to quality of working life, analyses of the differences along these aspects between working at home and working at a nor- mal workplace, and speculation about the possible consequences for the individual of the transfer of jobs from employers' premises to employees' homes

Shishko, R., & Rostker, B. (1976). The economics of multiple job holding. American Economic Review, 66, 298–308.
review (stats)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Multiple jobholding
determinants of moonlighting supply in the market

American Economic Review
1976
N/A

Sias, P. M., Kramer, M. W., & Jenkins, E. (1997). A comparison of the communication behaviors of temporary employees and new hires. Communication Research, 24, 731–754.
empirical
survey
quantitative
temporary workers nad new employees

temporary workers nad new employees
temporary work and isolation
comparison between temp workers and new hires in information giving, information seeking, and impression management behavior

Communication Research
1997
Most organizational research fails to examine the communication experiences of temporary employees. Based on uncertainty reduction theory and impression management, this study compares the information-seeking and information-giving behaviors of temporary employees and newly hired, regular employees. Results suggest that temporary employees are less concerned about impression management, seek appraisal information less frequently, and practice less information giving than newly hired, regular employees. The data indicate temporary employees are more communicatively isolated from organizational members than other newcomers. Results suggest organizations may improve organizational learning and innovation by increasing communication with temporary employees.

Sieber, S. D. (1974). Toward a theory of role accumulation. American Sociological Review, 39, 567–578.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
multiple identities opportunities
role accumulation and role strain

Sociological Review
1974
The assumption that multiplicity of roles produces a strong tendency toward role strain as a consequence of role conflict or role overload is disputed. The benefits of role accumulation tend to outweigh any stress to which it might give rise, thereby yielding net gratification. Four types of rewards derived from role accumulation are discussed: role-privileges; overall status security; resources for status enhancement and role performance; and enrichment of the personality and ego gratification. The importance of taking rights more fully into account in research and theory is emphasized. The possibility that barriers to role accumulation are a source of social instability is briefly assayed.

Sliter, M. T., & Boyd, E. M. (2014). Two (or three) is not equal to one: Multiple jobholding as a neglected topic in organizational research. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35, 1042– 1046
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Multiple jobholding
Multiple jobholding opportunities
Multiple jobholding challenges

multiple jobholding; second jobholding; moonlighting; work–family conflict; role conflict; burnout; job attitudes

Journal of Organizational Behavior
2014
The objective of this Incubator is to stimulate research in the area of multiple jobholding (MJH), a longneglected topic in organizational behavior. We first discuss the prevalence of, and motivation for, MJH and then discuss possible dangers and benefits of MJH. Throughout, we discuss ideas for future research

Sluss, D. M., & Ashforth, B. E. (2007). Relational identity and identification: Defining ourselves through work relationships. Academy of Management Review, 32, 9–32.
Theoretical
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
relational identity
relational identification
relational disidentification

Academy of Management Review
2007
We explore the meaning and significance of relational identity and relational iden tification, predicated on the role-relationship between two individuals. We argue that relational identity integrates person- and role-based identities and thereby the indi vidual, interpersonal, and collective levels of self; contrast relational identity and relational identification with social identity and social identification; contend that relational identity and relational identification are each arranged in a cognitive hierarchy ranging from generalized to particularized schemas; and contrast relational identification with relational disidentification and ambivalent relational identifica tion.

Smith, V. (1998). The fractured world of the temporary worker: Power, participation, and fragmentation in the contemporary workplace. Social Problems, 45, 411–430.
empirical
interview
qualitative
temporary workers in a high-tech company
high-technology company workers
temporary workers
reasons for collective inaction
power and contemporary workplace
fragentation in the contemporary workplace
power and participation

Social Problems
1998
Prevailing explanations of power, class fragmentation, participation, and resistance in the contemporary workplace have not explicitly incorporated three factors: the decentered work systems increasingly typical in blue- and white-collar occupations; the terms of the employment contract; and exogenous variables, such as previous labor market experiences, that strengthen or weaken workers' commitments to their jobs. This paper demonstrates the significance of these three factors by investigating the empirical case of temporary workers. Using interview and observational field data, I demonstrate how a system of temporary employment in a participative workplace both exploited and shaped entry-level workers' aspirations and occupational goals. I conclude by suggesting that capacities for collective action, or a social movement that might pose a critique of the current transformation of employment relations into a system increasingly characterized by nonstandard jobs, is limited by structural features and by individual embeddedness in stratified occupational systems.

Sonenshein, S., Dutton, J. E., Grant, A. M., Spreitzer, G. M., & Sutcliffe, K .M. (2013). Growing at work: Employees’ interpretations of progressive self-change in organizations. Organization Science, 24, 552-570.
empirical
interview
qualitative
employees in three different organizations
financial service, manufacturing, a nonprofit consortium of social services
agencies
employees
identity construction
Interpretations of Progressive Self-Change

qualitative research; interpretation and sensemaking; cultural construction of organizational life; psychological processes; human resource management

Organization Science
2013
We develop theory about how growing at work is an interpretive accomplishment in which individuals sense that they are making progressive self-change. Through a study of how employees interpret themselves as growing at three organizations, we develop a theoretical account of how employees draw from contextual and personal resources to interpret their growing in ways that embed their idiosyncratic experiences within an organization. The data suggest that employees develop three different types of growing self-construals: achieving, learning, and helping. We use our data to ground theory that explains the development of growing self-construals as deeply embedded in organizations. At the same time, we suggest that growing self-construals reflect individual agency through how individuals work with available resources to weave interpretations of themselves into their growing self-construals. We further suggest that growing self-construals influence the actions employees take to support a sense of progressive self-change.

Spinuzzi, C. (2012). Working alone together: Coworking as emergent collaborative activity. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 26, 399-441
empirical
interview
qualitative
remote workers in coworking spaces
varies
remote workers
coworking spaces
remote work

coworking, activity theory, knowledge work, telecommuting

Journal of Business and Technical Communication
2012
Mobile professionals can choose to work in offices, executive suites, home offices, or other spaces. But some have instead chosen to work at coworking spaces: open-plan office environments in which they work alongside other unaffiliated professionals for a fee of approximately $250 a month. But what service are they actually purchasing with that monthly fee? How do they describe that service? From an activity theory perspective, what are its object, outcome, and actors? This article reports on a 20-month study that answers such questions.

Spreitzer, G. M., Cameron, L., & Garrett, L. (2017). Alternative work arrangements: Two images of the new world of work. Annual Review of Psychology: Organizational Behavior, 4, 473-499.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
contract work
telecommuting
flexible work
precarious work
work, employment, contract work, telecommuting, flexible work, gig economy, precarious work

Annual Review of Psychology: Organizational Behavior
2017
Alternative work arrangements continue to increase in number and variety. We review the literature on alternative work arrangements published since the most recent major review of nonstandard work by Ashford et al. (2007). We look across the research findings to identify three dimensions of flexibility that undergird alternative work arrangements: (a) flexibility in the employment relationship, (b) flexibility in the scheduling of work, and (c) flexibility in where work is accomplished. We identify two images of the new world of work—one for high-skill workers who choose alternative work arrangements and the other for low-skill workers who struggle to make a living and are beholden to the needs of the organization. We close with future directions for research and practice for tending to the first image and moving away from the second image of the new world of work.

Stamper, C. L., & Masterson, S. S. (2002). Insider or outsider? How employee perceptions of insider status affect their work behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 875–894.
empirical
survey
quantitative

restaurant workers
temporary and permanenet workers
insider status effect on employee behavior
comparison of insider status by employment status
comparison between permanent and temporary workers

ournal of Organizational Behavior
2002
Many researchers have used the insider–outsider distinction when discussing employment relationships (e.g., Graen & Scandura, 1987; Pfeffer & Baron, 1988). However, there is no known empirical research directly assessing employees’ perceptions of their status as organizational insiders. This article is intended as an initial step to theoretically and empirically explore the concept of perceived insider status (PIS). First, we build theoretical arguments describing how organizations may differentiate between insider and outsider employees, leading to differences in perceptions of insider status. We then hypothesize and show empirical evidence that contrasts, but relates, actual inclusion and perceived organizational support to PIS. We subsequently examine two types of discretionary employee behavior, altruism and production deviance, as potential consequences of PIS. Our results suggest that both actual inclusion, as well as perceived insider status, have implications for organizational functioning via discretionary employee behaviors.

Staples, D. S., Hulland, J., & Higgins, C. (1999). A self-efficacy theory explanation for the management of remote workers in virtual organizations. Organization Science, 10, 758– 777.
empirical
survey
quantitative
workers in 18 organizations
varies
remote and non-remote workers
self efficacy and remote work outcomes
management of remote workers

Remote Work; Remote Management; Virtual Organizations; Self-Efficacy Theory

Organization Science
1999
The current study is a first step in investigating how virtual organizations can manage remote employees effectively. The research used self-efficacy theory to build a model that predicts relationships between antecedents to employees’ remote work self-efficacy assessments and their behavioral and attitudinal consequences. The model was tested using responses from 376 remote managed employees in 18 diverse organizations. Overall, the results indicated that remote employees’ self-efficacy assessments play a critical role in influencing their remote work effectiveness, perceived productivity, job satisfaction, and ability to cope. Furthermore, strong relationships were observed between employees’ remote work self-efficacy judgments and several antecedents, including remote work experience and training, best practices modeling by management, computer anxiety, and IT capabilities. Because many of these antecedents can be controlled managerially, these findings suggest important ways in which a remote employee’s work performance can be enhanced, through the intermediary effect of improved remote work self-efficacy. The current study also provides a basis for future research in the remote work area through its development and testing of a remote management framework.

Storey, J., Salaman, G., & Platman, K. (2005). Living with enterprise in an enterprise economy: Freelance and contract workers in the media. Human Relations, 58, 1033-1054.
empirical
interview
qualitative
media freelancers
media freelancers
freelancers
the enterprising self
enterprise identity
identity strategies

Human Relations
2005
Changes in organizational structures, logics and employment practices in the media industries – critically the outsourcing of labour, whereby employees become freelance workers – supply an ideal context in which to explore the extent to which, and the ways in which, ideological and structural pressures encourage workers to accept the logic and imperatives of enterprise. An important and influential body of literature identifies the ‘enterprising self’ as a central paradigmatic concept underpinning the rationale of new, alternative, work forms and relationships. And enterprising forms or logics of organization, or of organizational employment practices and relationships are closely associated with management pressures on workers (contract freelance workers or permanent employees) to accept enterprise as a major element of their self-identities.This study of media workers contributes to the debate about the ‘enterprising self’. Many writers have noted that workers in the enterprise economy are exposed to systemic efforts to see themselves in terms of enterprise. But relatively little work has explored how workers respond to these efforts.The findings of this study reveal the various ways in which freelance workers make sense of enterprise and how they understand themselves, and their employment experiences in terms of enterprise.

Tan, H. H., & Tan, C. P. (2002). Temporary employees in Singapore: What drives them? The Journal of Psychology, 1, 83–102.
empirical
survey
quantitative
temporary workers in Singapore
varies
temporary workers
reasons for temporary work

The Journal of Psychology
2002
In this study the authors provide an empirical analysis of the job attitudes and behavior of temporary workers in Singapore, compiling and categorizing the various reasons individuals choose temporary jobs, in an effort to provide a clear and comprehensive understanding of why people choose this work arrangement. A profile of temporary employees showed that job attitudes are affected by the importance of the various reasons given for being a temporary worker. This exploratory study provides a foundation on which more complex relationships between these variables can be examined.

Tench, R., Fawkes, J., & Palihawadana, D. (2002). Freelancing: Issues and trends for public relations practice. Journal of Communication Management, 6, 311–322.
empirical
survey
quantitative
Public relations freelancers
public relations
freelancers
reasons for freelancing
trends
freelancing challenges and opportunities

Freelance, Independent workers, Clients, Self-employed, Practice, Work-life balance

Journal of Communication Management
2002
This paper describes a research project that involved an in‐depth investigation into freelancing in the public relations industry with data collected from both freelancers and their employers. The analysis of these data highlighted the complexity of issues for those working in and employing people in this sector of public relations practice. The research project produced data on themes relating to freelance practitioners’ status, skills and experience, but this paper aims to focus specifically on trends and issues for the future. The key findings under this theme are that the freelance sector has grown. A majority of clients claim an increased use of freelancers in the last year and this was linked to a “need for flexibility” and “new business development”. Also the majority of freelancers are happy and do not want to change their employment status and some respondents stated “nothing” would make them return to permanent employment. Freelance public relations appears to be meeting a trend since the early 1990s for companies to “downsize” and “outsource” workers and for employees to seek a work/lifestyle balance. Regarding patterns of work almost half of freelancers claimed to be more productive when freelancing with the key factors being that they have “fewer interruptions” and fewer “unnecessary meetings”. Of relevance to national institutes and debates about professionalisation and reputation, it was interesting that the majority of the sample were not members of a professional body. The research and its findings have implications for human resources managers employing public relations staff, public relations managers and directors who commission freelance practitioners and the freelancers themselves.

Thatcher, S. M. B., & Zhu, X. (2006). Changing identities in a changing workplace: Identification, identity enactment, self-verification, and telecommuting. Academy of Management Review, 31, 1076 –1088.
Review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
identification
identity enactment
and self-verificat

Academy of Management Review
2006
We review literature on three important aspects of identity?namely, identification, identity enactment, and self-verification?to develop an identity-based framework for understanding organizational issues. We then analyze three major dimensions through which telecommuting alters the social context of work and interaction (loca tion of work, time spent telecommuting, and voluntary nature) and discuss the impli cations of telecommuting within the identity-based framework. Finally, we explore the implications that telecommuting has for identity-related theorie

Thoits, P. A. (1983). Multiple identities and psychological well-being. American Sociological Review, 49, 174–187.
empirical
survey
quantitative
New Haven community survey
New Haven community survey
community survey
multiple identities opportunities
multiple roles accumulation
isolation and identity loss

American Sociological Review
1983
Drawing upon symbolic interactionist theory, this paper reconceptualizes social isolation as the possession offew social identities. Social identities (enacted in role relationships) give meaning and guidance to behavior, and thus should prevent anxiety, depression, and disordered conduct. The "identity accumulation hypothesis"-the more identities possessed by an actor, the less psychological distress helshe should exhibit-is tested and supported using panel data from the New Haven community survey (Myers et al., 1971). The interaction between identity accumulation and identity change is also examined, under differing assumptions regarding the structure of multiple identities. Results indicate that integrated individuals benefit more from identity gain and also suffer more from identity loss than isolated individuals. The implications of these results for social isolation theory and for previous conceptions of the effects of multiple roles are discussed.

Tietze, S. (2005). Discourse as strategic coping resource: Managing the interface between "home" and "work.” Journal of Organizational Change Management, 18, 48–62.
empirical
interview
qualitative
remote worker families

remote worker families
performativity and remote work
discourse as strategic resource for remote work
remote work and identity strategies
self-regulatory identity
Work identity, Change management, Teleworking, Individual behaviour

Journal of Organizational Change Management
2005
Purpose – To provide insight into the consequences of telework from the perspective of the teleworker and the household. The paper discusses the consequences of telework for the formulation of identities. Design/methodology/approach – The paper is based on empirical work, which comprises home visits to teleworkers and therefore includes observational data and interview data. The data are analysed following a particular framework, which is views discourse as a “strategic resource” and draws on the vocabulary of performativity and connectivity to investigate why some “discursive acts” take successfully while others fail. Findings – It is shown that teleworkers and their households need to engage in strategies to protect and reconfirm their respective identities. This is achieved through the enactment of regulatory as well as self-regulatory (identity) acts. Originality/value – The paper is located in the household of teleworkers and therefore, includes this less well researched perspective. The linking of the conceptual framework (strategic resource) with the location of the study in the household in order to investigate the theme “identity” is an innovative feature, which shows that (internal) self-regulatory identity acts are equally or even more important than (external) regulatory acts.

Tietze, S., & Musson, G. (2003). The times and temporalities of home-based telework. Personnel Review, 32, 438–533.
empirical
interview
qualitative
remote worker families

remote worker families
remote work and time management
remote work and discipline
time strategies
remote work and family strategies
Homeworking, Teleworking, Time, Time management, Boundaries

Personnel Review
2003
Drawing on an empirical investigation situated in 25 households of professional managers, who worked regularly at home, this article explores how internalised time discipline is evoked, appropriated and challenged through and in home‐based telework. The notion of clock‐time is opposed with the notion of task‐time and it is shown how both temporalities inform the organisation of paid and unpaid work. It is shown that in some households the simultaneous co‐presence of conceptually different temporalities led to an increasing bureaucratisation of time as boundaries between “work” and “the household” had to be maintained and protected. In other households such co‐presence resulted in the emergence of more task‐based approaches to the co‐ordination of all activity and more elastic temporal boundaries drawn around them.

Trent, J. T., Smith, A. L., & Wood, D. L. (1994). Telecommuting—stress and social support. Psychological Reports, 74, 1312–1314.
empirical
survey
quantitative

remote and office workers
remote work and stress
remote work and social support

Psychological Reports
1994
Occupational stress and social support were measured in adults, 15 working as telecommuters, 9 working at home, and 14 working in a company office. Analysis showed telecommuters and office workers perceived more support than those working at home. Telecommuters also reporced less stress and a stronger preference for this new work option.

Uzzi, B., & Barsness, Z. I. (1998). Contingent employment in British establishments: Organizational determinants of the use of fixed-term hires and part-time workers. Social Forces, 76, 967–1007
empirical
survey
quantitative
UK organizations

organizations
firms' ability to capitalize on flexible workforce
Organizational determinants of the use of contingent workers

Social Forces
1998
Drawing on ILM, HRM, and new structuralist perspectives, we examine how organizational-based factors influence the intensity of two types of contingent worker use, fixed-duration contract hires and part-time employees, usinga representative sample of UK establishments. Consistent with an organizational-basedperspective, wefind that the use of contingent workers depends on organizational-level structures which facilitate or inhibit the adoption of flexible employment strategies. Findings suggest that while firms seek to reduce their costs and increase their flexibility, their ability to capitalize on flexible employment systems depends heavily on organizational characteristics such as organization size and age, the quality of management-labor relations, governance structures, the organization of work, job control technology, and recruitment options that can prompte or derail such use.

Vallas, S. & Christin, A. 2018. Work and identity in an era of precarious employment: How workers respond to “personal branding” discourse. Work and Occupations, 45, 3–37.
empirical
interview
qualitative
precariously employed white-collar workers and job seekers in multiple occupations, web journalists
web journalists and a variety of other white collar occupations

the enterprising self
workers' respond to personal branding discourses
neoliberalism
Foucauldian theories of governmentality
precarious work, personal branding, economic discourse, neoliberalism, Foucault

Work and Occupations
2018
Recent efforts to understand the significance of precarious work have been limited in at least two important respects. One is the neglect of the ideological constructs that workers are led to embrace concerning the
employment relation, and the other is the undertheorized nature of much research in this field. To address these limits, the authors adopt a twopronged strategy in this article. In empirical terms, the authors focus on an important source of popular thinking about work: the career advice genre, which has recently evolved into a growing literature on ‘‘personal branding.’’ In theoretical terms, the authors appeal to Foucault’s theory of governmentality in order to understand how and why workers respond to personal branding discourses. Data are drawn from two linked qualitative studies bearing on workers employed in distinct settings: freelance journalists in Paris and New York (N ¼ 101) and a broader set of white-collar employees who have faced market adversity in Boston (N ¼ 62). Findings reveal that personal branding discourse has become both prevalent and potent, encouraging many workers to conform to what Foucault referred to as the ‘‘enterprising self.’’ Yet the authors also find that workers respond to personal branding in a multiplicity of ways, some of which Foucault left
unaddressed. The article thus finds qualified support for Foucault’s arguments but identifies issues—especially that of agency and resistance—which stand in need of additional elaboration.

Van Breugel, G., Van Olffen, W., & Olie, R. (2005). Temporary liaisons: The commitment of 'temps' towards their agencies. The Journal of Management Studies, 42, 539–566.
empirical
survey
quantitative
temporary workers
varies
temporary workers
determinants of affective and continuance commitment of temporary workers towards
their agency
supportiveness of agency and temp workers commitment

The Journal of Management Studies
2005
The majority of research on organizational commitment has focused on commitment in traditional, ongoing and open-ended relationships. The commitment of employees in non-standard work arrangements such as temporary employment has been subject to much less theoretical and empirical investigation. In this study, we examine the affective and continuance commitment of temporary workers towards their agency and its determinants. We distinguish two groups of determinants: the process by which the temporary worker chose a particular agency and the support provided by the agency. The findings can be summarized as follows: (1) affective commitment among temps is generally higher than their continuance commitment; (2) having more alternative agencies to choose from (i.e., volition) does not enhance the commitment of temporary workers; (3) a public choice for a particular agency raises both types of commitment, whereas the perceived agency dependence created by the choice increases continuance, but not affective commitment; and (4) both types of commitment are positively influenced by agency supportiveness, reflected in the way the agency deals with problems, the career support it provides, and the way it keeps in close contact with its temporary workers. Finally, the results suggest that factors raising affective commitment may ‘spill over’ to increase continuance commitment.

Van Dyne, L., & Ang, S. (1998). Organizational citizenship behavior of contingent workers in Singapore. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 692–703.
empirical
survey
quantitative
professional workers from two large ser-
vice organizations, a bank and a hospital
professionals
contingent workers
OCB and contngent work
psychological contract

Academy of Management Journal
1998
This study, conducted in Singapore, where there are ongoing labor shortages, supports social exchange theory predictions that contingent workers engage in less organiza- tional citizenship, expect less of their employers in their psychological contracts, and have lower affective commitment than regular employees. Contrary to expectations, the relationship between two attitudes-commitment and psychological contracts- and organizational citizenship was stronger for contingent workers than for regular employees, indicating that when contingent workers have positive attitudes about their relationship with an organization, they engage in organizational

Von Hippel, C., Magnum,.S. L., Greenberger, D. B., Heneman, R. L., & Skoglind, J. D. (1997). Temporary employment: Can organization and employees both win? Academy of Management Executive, 11, 93–104.
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
challenges and opportunities of temporary work for employees and organizations

Academy of Management Executive
1997
While temporary employment is a fast growing work option, there's both danger and opportunity in the growing numbers of short term employment relationships. Ideally, temporary engagements offer the employing organization lower costs and increased flexibility. In turn, temporary assignments offer an individual variety and growth. The organization's benefits can prove elusive, though, if temporary employees are less skilled or less committed to their work. And the employee's benefits come at great cost if temporary workers become a wandering underclass in the labor pool. Our work on both sides of the employment contract demonstrates that temporary employment works well only when managed well—by both the employer and employee.

Waldorf, G. (2016). Why working multiple jobs will be the new normal. Entrepreneur, July 12.
Retrieved Dec. 6 from www.entrepreneur.com/article/278769
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
antecedents of multiple job holding trend
trends

2016
N/A

Wheeler, A. R., & Buckley, R. M. (2000). Examining the motivation process of temporary employees: A holistic model and research framework. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 16, 339–354.
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

Temporary worker, motivation, personnel policy, employees, self-esteem

Journal of Managerial Psychology
2000
Temporary labor is a widespread phenomenon in the workforce. Motivating the temporary worker (temp) requires a different framework than managing the permanent workforce. This issue appears to have received only scant attention and, paradoxically, applies to 90 percent of all private employers. We have reviewed the issues that surround the motivation of temps and have suggested a research framework and some research issues which may be used to help us gain some insight into this process

Wienns-Tuers, B. A., & Hill, E. T. (2002). How did we get here from there? Movement into temporary employment. Journal of Economic Issues, 36, 303–311.
review
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
reasons for temporary work
trends
statistics of temporary workers

Journal of Economic Issues
2002
N/A

Wiesenfeld, B. W., Raghuram, S., & Garud, R. (1999). Communication patterns as determinants of organizational identification in a virtual organization. Organization Science, 10, 777–790.
empirical
survey
quantitative
remote workers in the sales division of a large international computer company
sales division of a large international computer company
remote workers
organizational identificaation and virtual work
information technology and shared identity

Virtual Work; Organizational Identification; Communication Media

Organization Science
1999
Recent advances in information technologies provide employees the freedom to work from any place and at any time. Such temporal and spatial dispersion, however, weakens the ties that bind organizations and their members. We suggest that organizational identification may be the critical glue linking virtual workers and their organizations. We explore the role that information technologies play in the creation and maintenance of a common identity among decoupled organization members.

Workman, M., Kahnweiler, W., & Bommer, W. (2003). The effects of cognitive style and media richness on commitment to telework and virtual teams. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 199–219.
empirical
survey
quantitative
teleworkers in software ddevelopment, network administration, and systems testing
software development, network administration, and systems testing
full-time teleworkers
virtual work success factors
virtual work and commitment, information richness, and cognitive style (mental self-government)

ournal of Vocational Behavior
2003
Telework (also known as telecommuting) and virtual teams (also known as virtual collaboration) are seen as strategic organizational innovations with potential benefits to individuals, business, and society. Despite the rapid growth of telework and virtual team innovations, very little empirical research has investigated factors associated with their success. Thus, practitioners can only speculate why they succeed or fail. This empirical study investigated telework and virtual team innovations drawing upon commitment, information richness, and cognitive style (mental self-government) theory. Results indicate that certain combinations of cognitive styles and media contribute to commitment to the telework function and to virtual teams. Consequently, specific recommendations are made for teleworker selection, development, and for the design of the telework environment.

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