Assembly	language	programming	8086	examples	pdf
                                                                                                               	
  Example	of	assembly	language	program.	Example	of	assembly	language	instructions.	Example	of	an	assembly	language.	What	is	8086	assembly	language.	Basic	assembly	language	program	examples.	
  Assembly	language	is	a	low-level	programming	language	for	a	computer	or	other	programmable	device	that	is	specific	to	a	particular	computer	architecture,	unlike	most	high-level	programming	languages	​​that	are	usually	portable	across	multiple	systems.	Assembly	language	is	converted	to	executable	machine	code	by	a	utility	program	called
  assembly	language,	such	as	NASM,	MASM,	etc.	Audience	This	tutorial	is	for	those	who	want	to	relearn	the	basics	of	assembly	language	programming.	This	tutorial	will	give	you	enough	understanding	of	assembly	language	programming	so	you	can	take	your	knowledge	to	the	next	level.	Prerequisites	Before	starting	this	tutorial,	you	must	have	a	basic
  understanding	of	computer	programming	terminology.	Basic	knowledge	of	any	programming	language	will	help	you	understand	the	concepts	of	assembly	language	programming	and	quickly	navigate	the	learning	path.	Other	examples	1:	a	group	of	people	gathered	to	discuss	and	legislate,	worship	or	entertain	at	a	meeting	of	religious	leaders	2
  capitalized:	legislative	assembly,	specifically:	the	lower	house	of	parliament,	or	for	entertainment	The	school	meeting	was	held	in	the	assembly	hall	.	4	5	:	signal	for	troops	to	assemble	or	drop	6	a	:	assembly	of	manufactured	parts	into	a	complete	machine,	structure	or	machine	assembly,	vehicle	assembly	b	:	collection	of	parts	thus	assembled	7	:
  translation	from	assembly	language	to	machine	language	from	assembler	Page	2	Including	During	the	holiday	season,	Assembly	Label	offers	an	exclusive	selection	of	works	by	local	artists.	For	a	limited	time,	these	home	and	design	items	will	be	exclusive	to	select	Assembly	Label	stores,	making	it	a	great	opportunity	to	find	out	about	new	promotions.
  read	Här	samlar	vi	våra	studerandes	verk	magazine	for	inspiration.	Building	the	gameAssembler	is	a	low-level	programming	language	for	a	computer	or	other	programmable	device	specific	to	a	particular	computer	architecture,	unlike	most	high-level	programming	languages,	which	are	generally	portable	across	multiple	systems.	Assembler	is
  converted	to	executable	machine	code	using	a	tool	called	assembler,	such	as	NASM,	MASM,	etc.	Target	Audience	This	tutorial	is	for	those	who	want	to	learn	the	basics	of	Symbolic	Instruction	Language	programming	from	scratch.	This	tutorial	will	give	you	enough	understanding	of	assembly	language	programming	so	you	can	move	to	a	higher	level	of
  knowledge.	Prerequisites	Before	taking	this	course,	you	should	have	a	basic	understanding	of	computer	programming	terminology.	A	basic	knowledge	of	any	programming	language	will	help	you	understand	symbolic	instruction	language	programming	concepts	and	make	rapid	progress	in	your	learning.	Other	examples	1:	a	group	of	people	who	meet
  for	deliberation	and	legislation,	worship	or	entertainment	of	an	assembly	of	religious	leaders	2	capitalized:	the	legislative	assembly,	specifically:	the	lower	house	of	parliament	3:	an	assembly	of	a	student	body	and	usually	an	administrative,	educational	or	recreational	department	There	was	a	school	assembly.	4	5	:	signal	for	units	to	assemble	or
  disassemble	6	a	:	assembly	of	manufactured	parts	into	a	complete	machine,	structure	or	machine	assembly	for	car	assembly	b	:	set	of	parts	thus	assembled	7	:	translation	of	symbolic	instructions	into	machine	language	by	assembler	Page	2	V	including	During	the	holiday	season,	Assembly	Label	presents	a	curated	selection	of	works	by	local	artists.	For
  a	limited	time,	these	homeware	and	designer	items	are	exclusive	to	select	Assembly	Label	stores,	making	it	a	great	opportunity	to	discover	new	creations.	For	inspiration,	read	Här	samlar	vi	våra	studerandes	verk	magazine.	The	composition	of	the	gamelv	strong	connection	to	den	svenska	spelbranschen,	bland	annat	genome	dess	ledningsgrupper.
  Sign	up	for	school	ledningsgruppers	available	in	higher	quality	with	high	quality	and	in	all	areas	relevant	to	Arbetsmarknaden.	De	Erbjuder	även	gästfüreläsningar,	studiebesök	including	tar	emot	studerande	pÃ¥	LIA.	I	The	Game	Assemblies	ledningsgrupper	in	Malmö	och	Stockholm	inår	följande	füretag:	Low-level	programming	language
  Symbolic	instruction	language	Typical	assembly	secondary	output	with	the	original	assembly	language	of	a	Motorola	MC6800	(right)	and	a	compound	formParadamImperativeParad.	unstructured,	often	metaprogramming	(using	macros),	some	assemblers	are	object-oriented	and/or	structured	First	appeared	in	1947;	76	years	ago	(1947)	Writing
  discipline	No	filename	extensions	.asm,	.s,	.inc,	.wla,	.src	and	some	others	depending	on	the	assembly	language	In	computer	programming,	assembly	language	(or	assembler[1]	or	symbolic	machine	code[2)	]	[3][4]),	often	referred	to	simply	as	assembly	and	commonly	abbreviated	as	ASM	or	asm,	is	a	low-level	programming	language	with	a	very	strong
  correspondence	between	language	instructions	and	machine	code	instructions.	Architecture.[5]	]	A	symbolic	instruction	language	typically	has	one	instruction	for	each	machine	instruction	(1:1),	but	typically	also	supports	constants,	comments,	assembly	instructions[6]	such	as	symbolic	labels	for	memory	locations,	registers,	and	macros[7][1]	.	The
  first	assembly	code	to	use	the	language	to	represent	machine	code	instructions	can	be	found	in	Coding	for	A.R.C.	dated	1947	by	Kathleen	and	Andrew	Donald	Booth.[8]	Assembly	code	is	converted	into	executable	machine	code	using	a	utility	called	assembler.	The	term	"assembler"	is	usually	attributed	to	Wilkes,	Wheeler,	and	Gill	in	their	1951	book
  The	Preparation	of	Programs	for	an	Electronic	Digital	Computer	[9],	but	they	used	the	term	to	mean	"a	program	that	assembles	another	program	that	consists	of	several	parts.one	program".[10]	The	conversion	process	is	called	assembly,	as	is	the	assembly	of	source	code.	The	number	of	steps	the	assembler	takes	to	process	the	program	is	called	the
  assembly	time.	Because	assembly	depends	on	machine	code	instructions,	each	assembly	language	[nb	1]	is	specific	to	a	particular	computer	architecture.[11][12][13]	Sometimes	there	is	more	than	one	assembler	for	the	same	architecture,	and	sometimes	an	assembler	is	specific	to	an	operating	system	or	certain	operating	systems.	Most	assembly
  languages	​​do	not	provide	any	special	syntax	for	operating	system	calls	and	most	assembly	languages	​​can	be	used	universally	with	any	operating	system,[Note	2]	because	the	language	provides	access	to	all	the	real	capabilities	of	the	processor	on	which	all	system	calls	are	Unlike	assembly,	these	are	mostly	high-level	programming	languages	​​in	general
  n	is	portable	across	architectures,	but	interpreting	or	compiling	it	requires	a	lot	more	work	than	building	it	decades	ago	it	was	common	for	both	system	programming	and	application	programming	to	be	done	entirely	in	symbolic	instruction	language.	Although	still	necessary	for	some	purposes,	most	programming	today	is	done	in	high-level	interpreted
  and	compiled	languages.	Fred	Brooks	summarized	the	implications	of	the	move	away	from	symbolic	instruction	language	programming	in	his	article	"No	Silver	Bullet":	"Of	course,	the	most	powerful	step	in	software	productivity,	reliability,	and	simplicity	is	the	progressive	use	of	high-level	programming	languages.	Most	observers	rate	this
  development	as	at	least	a	factor	of	five	in	productivity	while	improving	reliability,	simplicity,	and	comprehensibility."[14]	Today,	it	is	typical	to	use	a	small	amount	of	symbolic	instruction	language	code	in	larger	systems	implemented	in	higher	languages	​​for	performance	reasons	or	to	directly	interact	with	hardware	in	a	way	that	which	is	not	supported
  by	a	higher	levelFor	example,	less	than	2%	of	the	Linux	kernel	version	4.9	source	code	is	written	in	assembly	language;	over	97%	are	written	in	C[15]	Assembly	language	syntax	A	symbolic	instruction	language	uses	mnemonics	to	represent,	for	example,	each	low-level	machine	instruction	or	opcode,	each	directive,	usually	also	each	architecture
  register,	flag,	etc.	Some	mnemonics	may	be	built-in	and	some	may	be	user-defined.	Many	operations	require	one	or	more	operands	to	form	a	complete	statement.	Most	assemblers	allow	named	constants,	registers,	and	labels	for	program	and	memory	locations,	and	can	evaluate	expressions	for	operands.	This	frees	programmers	from	long,	repetitive
  calculations,	and	assembly	language	programs	are	much	more	readable	than	machine	code.	Depending	on	the	architecture,	these	elements	can	also	be	combined	to	obtain	specific	instructions	or	addressing	modes	using	offsets	or	other	data,	as	well	as	fixed	addresses.	Many	assemblers	offer	additional	mechanisms	to	facilitate	program	development,
  control	the	compilation	process,	and	aid	in	debugging.	Some	are	column-oriented,	with	specific	fields	in	specific	columns;	this	was	very	common	on	punch	card	machines	in	the	1950s	and	early	1960s.	Some	assemblers	have	a	free	syntax	where	fields	are	separated	by	separators	such	as	punctuation	marks,	spaces.	Some	assemblers	are	hybrids,	such
  as	with	labels	in	a	given	column	and	other	fields	separated	by	separators;	In	the	1960s,	it	became	more	common	than	the	column-oriented	syntax.	IBM	System/360	All	IBM	System/360	assemblers	have	a	default	label	in	column	1,	fields	2-71	separated	by	delimiters.	column,	the	continuation	indicator	at	column	72,	and	the	sequential	number	73-80.	in
  the	column.	Labels,	opcodes,	operands,	and	comments	are	separated	by	spaces,	and	individual	operands	are	separated	by	commas	and	parentheses.	Terminology	Macro	assembler	is	assembler	containing	macro	instructions	by	which	(parameterized)	text	in	assembler	can	be	representedand	this	name	can	be	used	to	insert	extended	text	into	other
  code.	Open	source	refers	to	any	assembler	input	outside	of	a	macro	definition.	A	cross	assembler	(see	also	cross	compiler)	is	an	assembler	that	runs	on	a	different	computer	or	operating	system	(the	host	system)	than	the	system	on	which	the	resulting	code	is	to	run	(the	target	system).	A	cross	assembler	makes	it	easier	to	develop	programs	for
  systems	that	do	not	have	the	means	to	support	software	development,	such	as	B.	an	embedded	system	or	a	microcontroller.	In	this	case,	the	resulting	object	code	must	be	transferred	to	the	target	system	via	non-volatile	memory	(ROM,	EPROM,	etc.),	the	programmer	(if	non-volatile	memory	is	built	into	the	device,	as	in	microcontrollers).	or	a	data
  connection	that	uses	either	an	exact	bit	copy	of	the	object	code	or	a	textual	representation	of	that	code	(such	as	Intel	Hex	or	Motorola	S-Record).	A	high-level	assembler	is	a	program	that	provides	language	abstractions	commonly	associated	with	high-level	languages	​​such	as	B.	Advanced	control	structures	(IF/THEN/ELSE,	DO	CASE,	etc.)	and	high-
  level	abstract	data	types,	including	structure/records	,	unions,	classes	and	sets.	A	microassembler	is	a	program	that	helps	prepare	firmware,	called	firmware,	to	control	the	low-level	operation	of	a	computer.	A	metaassembler	is	"a	program	that	takes	a	syntactic	and	semantic	description	of	a	symbolic	instruction	language	and	generates	an	assembler
  for	that	language"[16]	or	that	takes	an	assembler	source	file	along	with	such	a	description	and	assembles	the	source	file	into	it	accordingly.	description.	The	"meta	character"	assembler	for	SDS	9	and	SDS	Sigma	series	computers	is	a	meta	assembler.	An	inline	assembler	(or	inline	assembler)	is	an	assembler	contained	in	a	high-level	language
  program.[19]	This	is	most	often	used	in	system	programs	that	require	directto	the	equipment.	Key	Concepts	Assembler	An	assembly	language	program	creates	object	code	by	converting	combinations	of	mnemonics	and	syntax	for	operations	and	addressing	modes	to	their	numeric	equivalents.	This	representation	usually	includes	an	opcode	("opcode")
  as	well	as	other	control	bits	and	data.	The	assembler	also	evaluates	constant	expressions	and	resolves	symbolic	names	for	memory	locations	and	other	objects.	The	use	of	symbolic	links	is	a	key	feature	of	assemblers,	eliminating	tedious	calculations	and	manual	updating	of	addresses	after	changes	in	the	program.	Most	assemblers	also	include	macro
  functions	to	perform	text	substitutions	-	for	example,	creating	common	short	sequences	of	commands	as	built-in	rather	than	callable	subroutines.	Some	assemblers	can	also	perform	some	simple	types	of	optimizations	that	depend	on	the	instruction	set.	A	particular	example	of	this	is	the	ubiquitous	x86	assemblers	from	various	vendors.	Most	of	them,
  called	jump	sizes,	are	able	to	replace	the	demand	jump	instructions	(long	jumps	are	replaced	with	short	or	relative	jumps)	in	any	number	of	passes.	Others	may	even	replace	or	insert	simple	instructions,	like	some	RISC	assemblers,	which	can	help	optimize	intelligent	instruction	scheduling	to	make	the	most	efficient	use	of	the	CPU	pipeline.	Assembly
  language	has	been	available	since	the	1950s,	as	the	first	step	from	machine	language	and	before	high-level	programming	languages	​​such	as	Fortran,	Algol,	COBOL,	and	Lisp.	There	are	also	several	classes	of	translators	and	semi-automated	code	generators	with	properties	similar	to	assembly	language	and	high-level	languages,	Speedcode	being
  perhaps	one	of	the	best-known	examples.	There	may	be	multiple	assemblers	with	different	syntax	for	a	given	processor	or	instruction	set	architecture.	For	example,	an	instruction	to	add	memory	data	to	a	register	on	an	x86	processor	might	look	like	this:	add	eax,[ebx]	in	native	Intel	syntax,This	would	be	written	as	addl	(%ebx),%eax	in	the	AT&T
  syntax	used	by	the	GNU	assembler.	Despite	their	different	appearances,	the	different	forms	of	syntax	usually	produce	the	same	numeric	machine	code.	One	assembler	can	also	have	different	modes	for	handling	variations	of	syntactic	forms,	as	well	as	their	precise	semantic	interpretations	(such	as	FASM	syntax,	TASM	syntax,	ideal	mode,	etc.	in	the
  particular	case	of	x86	assembly	programming).	Number	of	passes	There	are	two	types	of	assemblers,	depending	on	how	many	passes	through	the	source	code	it	takes	(how	many	times	the	assembler	reads	the	source	code)	to	create	an	object	file.	Single-pass	assemblers	process	the	source	code	only	once.	For	symbols	that	were	used	before	they	were
  defined,	the	assembler	throws	an	"error"	after	the	final	definition,	telling	the	linker	or	loader	to	fix	those	places	where	undefined	symbols	were	used.	Multi-pass	assemblers	create	an	array	of	all	symbols	and	their	values	​​in	the	first	few	passes,	and	then	use	the	array	in	subsequent	passes	to	generate	code.	In	both	cases,	the	assembler	must	be	able	to
  determine	the	size	of	each	instruction	in	the	initial	passes	in	order	to	calculate	the	addresses	of	subsequent	characters.	This	means	that	if	the	size	of	the	operation	associated	with	an	operand	determined	later	depends	on	the	type	or	offset	of	the	operand,	the	assembler	will	make	a	pessimistic	judgment	when	it	first	encounters	the	operation	and	match
  it	if	necessary,	or	multiple	absence	of	the	operation.	in	a	later	pass	or	fix.	In	viewfinder-optimized	assembler,	addresses	can	be	recalculated	between	passes	to	allow	pessimistic	code	to	be	replaced	by	code	corresponding	to	the	exact	distance	from	the	target.	The	original	reason	for	using	single-pass	assemblers	was	memory	size	and	assembly	speed	-
  often	the	second	pass	required	storing	the	symbol	table	in	memory	(to	support	direct	references),	rewinding	and	rereading	the	program	source	from	tape,	or	rereading	a	deck	of	cards	or	punched	tape.computers	with	much	more	memory	(especially	disk	memory)	had	room	to	do	all	the	processing	needed	without	such	rereading.	The	advantage	of	a
  multi-stage	assembler	is	that	the	absence	of	errors	speeds	up	the	linking	process	(or	program	loading	if	the	assembler	directly	generates	the	executable	code).	Example:	In	the	code	snippet	below,	the	one-pass	assembler	could	determine	the	backward	reference	address	of	BKWD	by	assembling	the	S2	instruction,	but	would	not	be	able	to	determine
  the	forward	reference	address	of	FWD	by	assembling	the	branch	instruction	S1;	in	fact,	FWD	may	be	undefined.	The	dual	assembler	would	determine	both	addresses	in	pass	1	so	that	they	would	be	known	during	code	generation	in	pass	2.	S1	B	FWD	...	FWD	EQU	*	...	BKWD	EQU	*	...	S2	B	BKWD	High-level	assemblers	A	more	sophisticated	level	of
  high-level	assemblers	provides	language	abstractions	such	as:	High-level	declarations	and	procedure/function	calls	Advanced	control	structures	(IF/	THEN/ELSE,	SWITCH)	High-level	abstract	data	types	including	structures/records,	unions,	classes	and	sets,	complex.	macro	processing	(although	available	since	the	late	1950s	in	simple	assembly
  language,	such	as	for	the	IBM	700	and	IBM	7000	series,	and	since	the	1960s	for	the	IBM	System/360	(S/360),	among	others)	Object-oriented	programming	features	such	as	classes,	objects,	abstractions,	polymorphism	and	inheritance	[23]	See	Language	Design	below	for	more	information.	A	program	written	in	symbolic	instruction	language	consists
  of	a	series	of	mnemonic	CPU	instructions	and	meta-instructions	(known	as	declarative	operations,	directives,	pseudo-instructions,	pseudo-operations,	and	pseudo-operations),	comments,	and	data.	Symbolic	instruction	language	instructions	typically	consist	of	an	opcode	mnemonic	followed	by	an	operand,	which	can	be	a	list	of	data,	arguments,	or
  parameters.	Some	commands	can	be	implicit,	meaning	that	the	data	the	commands	operate	on	is	implicitly	definedalone	-	such	an	instruction	does	not	require	an	operand.	The	resulting	instruction	is	translated	by	the	assembler	into	machine	language	instructions	that	can	be	loaded	into	memory	and	executed.	For	example,	the	following	instruction
  instructs	the	x86/IA-32	processor	to	move	an	8-bit	immediate	value	into	a	register.	The	binary	code	for	this	instruction	is	10110	followed	by	a	3-bit	identifier	for	register	use.	The	identifier	of	the	AL	register	is	000,	so	the	following	machine	code	loads	the	AL	register	with	the	value	01100001.[24]	10110000	01100001	This	binary	computer	code	can	be
  made	more	human	readable	by	expressing	it	in	hexadecimal	as	follows.	B0	61	Here	B0	means	“Move	a	copy	of	the	following	value	to	AL	and	61	is	the	hexadecimal	representation	of	the	value	01100001	which	is	97	decimal.	The	8086	family	assembler	provides	the	mnemonic	MOV	(short	for	move-in)	for	the	following	instructions,	so	the	above	machine
  code	can	be	written	in	symbolic	instruction	language,	if	desired,	with	an	explanatory	comment	after	the	semicolon.	It	is	much	easier	to	read	and	remember.	KUSTĪBA	AL,	61st.;	Load	AL	up	to	97	decimal	places	(61	hex)	In	some	assembly	languages	​​(including	this	one),	the	same	mnemonic	as	MOV	can	be	used	for	a	group	of	related	instructions	for
  loading,	copying,	and	moving	data,	whether	direct	values	​​or	values.	in	registers	or	memory	locations	designated	by	values	​​in	registers	or	direct	(also	known	as	direct)	addresses.	Other	assemblers	may	use	a	separate	opcode	mnemonic,	such	as	L	for	"move	memory	to	registers",	ST	for	"move	registers	to	memory",	LR	for	"move	registers	to	registers",
  MVI	for	"move	immediate	operand	to	memory",	etc.	are	used	for	different	instructions,	i.e.,	the	mnemonic	corresponds	to	several	different	binary	opcodes	other	than	data	(eg,	61h	in	this	example),	depending	on	the	operands	that	follow	the	mnemonic.	For	example,	it	is	Intel	assembly	language	for	x86/IA-32	processorsMOV	AL,	AH	is	an	instruction
  that	moves	the	contents	of	the	AH	register	to	the	AL	register.	The	hexadecimal	[nb	4]	form	of	this	instruction	is:	88	E0	The	first	byte,	88h,	identifies	the	movement	between	a	byte-sized	register	and	the	next	register	or	memory,	and	the	second	byte	E0h	is	encoded	(using	three	bits).	.	array)	to	indicate	that	both	operands	are	registers,	the	source	is	AH
  and	the	destination	is	AL.	In	this	case,	if	the	same	mnemonic	can	represent	more	than	one	binary	instruction,	the	assembler	determines	which	instruction	to	produce	by	examining	the	operands.	In	the	first	example,	operand	61h	is	a	valid	hexadecimal	numeric	constant	and	not	a	valid	register	name,	so	only	the	B0	instruction	can	be	used.	In	the	second
  example,	the	operand	AH	is	a	valid	register	name	and	not	a	valid	numeric	constant	(hexadecimal,	decimal,	octal,	or	binary),	so	only	instruction	88	can	be	used	to	avoid	ambiguity.	executed	by	their	syntax.	For	example,	in	Intel	x86	assembly	language,	a	hexadecimal	constant	must	start	with	a	number,	so	the	hexadecimal	number	"A"	(equal	to	decimal)
  is	written	as	0Ah	or	0AH	instead	of	AH,	so	it	can't	look	like	an	AH	register	name.	(The	same	rule	also	avoids	confusion	with	the	register	names	BH,	CH,	and	DH,	and	any	user-defined	symbols	ending	in	the	letter	H	that	otherwise	contain	only	characters	that	are	hexadecimal	digits,	such	as	the	word	"STRAND".	)	Previous	As	for	the	original	example,
  while	the	x86	opcode	10110000	(B0)	copies	an	8-bit	value	into	the	AL	register,	10110001	(B1)	moves	it	to	CL,	and	10110010	(B2)	thus	executes	it	in	DL.	Examples	of	symbolic	languages	​​of	instruction	follow.[24]	MOVEMENT,	1h;	Load	AL	with	immediate	value	1	MOV	CL,	2h;	Load	CL	with	immediate	value	2	MOV	DL,	3h;	Load	DL	with	immediate
  value	3	The	MOV	syntax	can	also	be	more	complex,	as	in	the	following	examples.MOV	EAX,	[EBX]	;	Move	4	bytes	in	memory	at	address	EBX	to	EAX	MOV	[ESI+EAX],	CL	;	Move	contents	of	CL	in	bytes	to	address	ESI+EAX	MOV	DS,	DX	;	Move	the	contents	of	DX	to	the	DS	segment	register	In	any	case,	the	assembler	directly	translates	the	MOV
  mnemonic	to	one	of	the	opcodes	88-8C,	8E,	A0-A3,	B0-BF,	C6,	or	C7,	and	the	programmer	usually	does	not.	I	don't	know	if	I	should	remember	which	ones.[24]	Converting	assembly	language	to	machine	code	is	the	task	of	the	assembler,	and	the	opposite	can	be	done	at	least	partially	by	the	disassembler.	Unlike	high-level	languages,	there	is	a	one-to-
  one	correspondence	between	many	simple	assembly	instructions	and	machine	language	instructions.	However,	in	some	cases,	the	assembler	may	provide	pseudo-instructions	(essentially	macros)	that	nest	inside	some	machine	language	instructions	to	provide	commonly	needed	functions.	For	example,	for	a	machine	that	does	not	have	a	"branch	if
  greater	than	or	equal	to"	instruction,	the	assembler	can	provide	a	pseudo-instruction	that	refers	to	"machine	set	if	less	than"	and	"branch	if	zero"	(based	on	the	result	of	the	instruction	set).	Most	full-featured	assemblers	also	provide	a	rich	macro	language	(discussed	below)	that	vendors	and	developers	use	to	generate	more	complex	sequences	of	code
  and	data.	Since	information	about	pseudo-instructions	and	macros	defined	in	the	assembly	environment	is	stored	in	the	object-oriented	program,	the	disassembler	cannot	reconstruct	the	calls	to	the	macros	and	pseudo-instructions,	but	can	only	disassemble	the	actual	machine	instructions	that	the	assembler	generated	from	these	abstract	assembly
  language	units.	language	source	files	are	ignored	by	the	assembler	and	those	generated	by	it.	Does	not	affect	object	code	Also,	the	disassembler	cannot	always	retrieve	source	comments.	Each	computer	architecture	has	its	own	machine	language.	Computers	vary	in	the	number	and	type	of	operations	they	support,	including:registers	and
  representations	of	stored	data	of	various	sizes	and	numbers.	While	most	general	purpose	computers	can	perform	essentially	the	same	functions,	the	way	they	are	performed	varies;	the	respective	assembly	languages	​​reflect	these	differences.	One	set	of	instructions	can	have	multiple	sets	of	mnemonics	or	assembly	language	syntax,	which	are	typically
  generated	in	different	assembly	language	programs.	In	such	cases,	the	most	common	is	usually	the	one	provided	by	the	processor	manufacturer	and	used	in	their	documentation.	Two	examples	of	processors	with	two	different	sets	of	mnemonics	are	the	Intel	8080	and	Intel	8086/8088	families.	Because	Intel	claimed	copyright	on	its	assembly	language
  mnemonics	(at	least	on	every	page	of	its	documentation	published	in	the	1970s	and	early	1980s),	some	companies	that	made	their	own	processors	that	were	compatible	with	Intel's	instruction	sets	invented	their	own.	own	mnemonics.	Zilog	Z80	processor,	Intel	8080A	chip	upgrade,	support	all	8080A	instructions	plus	many	more;	Zilog	invented	an
  entirely	new	assembly	language	not	only	for	the	new	instructions,	but	for	all	8080A	instructions.	For	example,	while	Intel	uses	MOV,	MVI,	LDA,	STA,	LXI,	LDAX,	STAX,	LHLD,	and	SHLD	mnemonics	for	various	data	transfer	instructions,	Z80	assembly	language	uses	LD	mnemonics	for	all	of	them.	A	similar	case	applies	to	NEC	V20	and	V30	processors,
  upgraded	copies	of	Intel	8086	and	8088,	respectively.	Like	Zilog	with	the	Z80,	NEC	invented	a	new	mnemonic	for	all	8086	and	8088	instructions	to	avoid	accusations	of	copyright	infringement	by	Intel.	(It	is	doubtful	whether	such	copyrights	can	survive,	and	later	processor	companies	such	as	AMD	[nb	5]	and	Cyrix	have	faithfully	reproduced	the	Intel
  x86/IA-32	instruction	mnemonics	without	permission	or	legal	punishment.)	It	is	doubtful	whether	many	people,	in	fact,	who	programmed	the	V20	and	V30	were	actually	writing	in	NEC	assembly	language,	not	Intel;	from	any	two	nodesSince	the	architecture	of	the	same	instruction	set	is	isomorphic	(a	bit	like	English	and	Pig	Latin),	there	is	no	need	to
  use	a	vendor's	published	assembly	language	with	that	vendor's	products.	Basic	Elements	of	Language	Design	The	way	assembly	language	authors	classify	instructions	and	the	nomenclature	they	use	vary	widely.	In	particular,	some	describe	something	other	than	machine	mnemonics	or	extended	mnemonics	as	a	pseudo-operation	(pseudo-operation).	A
  typical	assembly	language	consists	of	3	types	of	instructions	used	to	define	program	operations:	Opcode	mnemonics	Data	definitions	Assembler	directives	Opcode	mnemonics	and	extended	mnemonics	Assembly	language	instructions	(instructions)	are	usually	very	simple,	unlike	high-level	languages.	Typically,	a	mnemonic	is	a	symbolic	name	for	a
  single	machine	language	(opcode)	instruction	to	be	executed,	and	one	or	more	opcode	mnemonics	are	defined	for	each	machine	language	instruction.	Each	instruction	usually	consists	of	an	operation	or	opcode	plus	zero	or	more	operands.	Most	statements	refer	to	a	single	value	or	pair	of	values.	Operands	can	be	immediate	(a	value	encoded	in	the
  instruction	itself),	registers	specified	or	implicit	in	the	instruction,	or	addresses	of	data	elsewhere	in	memory.	This	is	determined	by	the	underlying	processor	architecture:	the	assembler	merely	reflects	how	that	architecture	works.	Extended	mnemonics	are	often	used	to	indicate	the	combination	of	an	opcode	with	a	specific	operand,	such	as	mask	0
  Extended	mnemonics	are	often	used	to	support	uses	of	a	specific	instruction,	often	for	purposes	not	apparent	from	the	instruction	name.	For	example,	many	processors	do	not	have	an	explicit	NOP	instruction,	but	have	instructions	that	can	be	used	for	this	purpose.	In	the	year	8086The	xchg	ax,ax	instruction	is	used	in	nop,	where	nop	is	the	pseudo-
  opcode	for	encoding	the	xchg	ax,ax	instruction.	Some	disassemblers	recognize	this	and	decode	the	xchg	ax,	ax	instruction	as	nop.	Similarly,	the	IBM	System/360	and	System/370	assemblers	use	the	extended	mnemonics	NOP	and	NOPR	for	BC	and	BCR	with	zero	masks.	For	the	SPARC	architecture,	these	are	known	as	synthetic	instructions.[26]	Some
  assemblers	also	support	simple	built-in	macro	instructions	that	generate	two	or	more	machine	instructions.	For	example,	some	Z80	assemblers	recognize	the	statement	ld	hl,bc	to	produce	ld	l,c	followed	by	ld	h,b.[27]	These	are	sometimes	called	pseudo-opcodes.	Mnemonics	are	arbitrary	symbols;	In	1985,	the	IEEE	published	Standard	694	for	a
  common	set	of	mnemonics	for	all	assemblers.	The	standard	has	since	been	withdrawn.	Data	Directives	There	are	directives	for	defining	data	members	that	contain	data	and	variables.	You	define	the	data	type,	length,	and	data	alignment.	These	directives	can	also	specify	whether	the	data	is	available	to	external	programs	(separately	compiled
  programs)	or	only	to	the	program	in	which	the	data	section	is	defined.	Some	assemblers	classify	them	as	pseudo-operations.	Assembler	Directives	Assembler	directives,	also	called	pseudo-opcodes,	pseudo-ops,	or	pseudo-ops,	are	instructions	given	to	the	assembler	that	"direct	it	to	perform	actions	other	than	the	assembler's	instructions"[20].	The
  directives	affect	the	behavior	of	the	assembler	and	"may	affect	the	object	code,	symbol	table,	dump	file,	and	parameter	values	​​of	the	internal	assembler".	Sometimes	the	term	pseudo-opcode	is	reserved	for	directives	that	generate	object	code,	such	as	those	that	generate	data.[28]	Pseudo-operation	names	often	begin	with	a	period	to	distinguish	them
  from	machine	instructions.	A	pseudo-op	can	make	the	construction	of	a	program	dependent	on	parameters	provided	by	the	programmer,	allowing	the	same	program	to	be	built	in	different	ways,	e.g.Application.	Or	a	pseudo-operation	can	be	used	to	manipulate	the	presentation	of	a	program	to	make	it	easier	to	read	and	maintain.	Another	common	use
  of	pseudo-ops	is	to	reserve	areas	of	memory	for	data	at	runtime	and	optionally	initialize	their	contents	with	known	values.	Symbolic	assemblers	allow	programmers	to	associate	arbitrary	names	(characters	or	symbols)	with	memory	locations	and	various	constants.	Each	constant	and	variable	is	usually	named	so	that	statements	can	refer	to	these
  locations	by	name,	making	it	easier	to	self-document	your	code.	In	executable	code,	the	name	of	each	subroutine	is	associated	with	its	entry	point,	so	that	all	calls	to	the	subroutine	can	use	its	name.	GOTO	targets	are	indicated	in	subroutines.	Some	assemblers	support	local	symbols,	which	are	often	lexically	different	from	normal	symbols	(for	example,
  using	"$10"	as	a	GOTO	target).	Some	assemblers,	such	as	NASM,	provide	flexible	symbol	management,	allowing	developers	to	manage	different	namespaces,	automatically	calculate	offsets	in	data	structures,	and	assign	labels	that	refer	to	literal	values	​​or	the	simple	result	of	calculations	performed	by	the	assembler.	Labels	can	also	be	used	to	initialize
  constants	and	variables	with	variable	addresses.	Assemblers,	like	most	other	computer	languages,	allow	you	to	add	comments	to	a	program's	source	code	that	will	be	ignored	during	assembly.	Reasonable	comments	are	essential	in	symbolic	instruction	language	programs	because	it	can	be	difficult	to	determine	the	meaning	and	purpose	of	a	sequence
  of	binary	machine	instructions.	The	"raw"	(commented)	symbolic	instruction	language	generated	by	compilers	or	disassemblers	is	quite	difficult	to	read	when	you	need	to	make	changes.	Macros	Many	assemblers	support	predefined	macros,	while	others	support	programmer-defined	(and	redefined)	macros,	which	are	sequences	of	lines	of	text
  containing	embedded	variables	and	constants.	A	macro	definition	is	most	often	[nb	6]	a	combination	of	assembler	instructions,	such	as	directives,	symbols.Assembly	instructions	and	templates.	This	sequence	of	lines	of	text	may	contain	opcodes	or	directives.	Once	a	macro	is	defined,	its	name	can	be	used	instead	of	a	mnemonic.	When	the	assembler
  processes	such	an	instruction,	it	replaces	it	with	the	lines	of	text	associated	with	that	macro,	and	then	processes	them	as	if	they	were	in	the	source	code	file	(including	expanding	any	macros	into	the	placeholder	text	in	some	assemblers).	.	.	Macros	in	this	sense	can	be	traced	back	to	IBM's	autoencoders	in	the	1950s.	[29]	[Note	7]	Macro	assemblers
  usually	have	instructions	to	do	things	like	defining	a	macro,	defining	variables,	setting	variables	to	the	result	of	some	arithmetic,	logic	or	string	expression,	iteration,	conditional	code	generation.	Some	of	these	statements	may	be	restricted	to	use	in	macro	definitions,	e.g.	B.MEXIT	HLASM,	while	others	may	be	allowed	in	open	code	(outside	macro
  definitions),	e.g.	B.AIF	and	COPY	HLASM.	In	assembly	language,	the	term	"macro"	is	a	broader	concept	than	in	some	other	contexts,	such	as	the	C	preprocessor	programming	language,	where	the	#define	directive	is	typically	used	to	create	short,	one-line	macros.	Assembler	macros,	like	macros	in	PL/I	and	some	other	languages,	can	themselves	be
  long	"programs"	run	by	the	assembler	during	assembly.	Because	macros	can	have	"short"	names,	but	can	span	many	or	even	many	lines	of	code,	they	can	be	used	to	make	assembly	language	programs	look	much	shorter	and	require	fewer	lines	of	source	code	than	high-level	languages.	They	can	also	be	used	to	add	higher	levels	of	structure	to
  assemblers,	optionally	implement	inline	debugging	code	with	parameters,	and	other	similar	features.	Macro	assemblers	often	allow	macros	to	retrieve	parameters.	Some	assemblers	include	quite	complex	macro	languages	​​that	include	high-level	language	elements	such	as	optional	parameters,	symbolic	variables,	conditions,manipulations	and
  arithmetic	operations	applied	during	the	execution	of	a	particular	macro	that	allow	the	macro	to	maintain	context	or	exchange	information.	Thus,	a	macro	can	generate	multiple	symbolic	instructions	or	data	definitions	based	on	the	macro's	arguments.	It	can	be	used	to	create,	for	example,	record-style	data	structures	or	"unrolled"	loops	or	entire
  algorithms	based	on	complex	parameters.	For	example,	a	"sort"	macro	can	take	a	complex	sort	key	specification	and	generate	code	built	for	that	particular	sort	key	without	the	need	for	the	run-time	checks	that	a	generic	procedure	that	interprets	the	specification	would	require.	An	organization	using	a	symbolic	instruction	language,	greatly	enhanced
  by	such	a	set	of	macros,	can	be	thought	of	as	operating	in	a	higher-level	language,	since	such	programmers	do	not	work	with	the	low-level	conceptual	elements	of	a	computer.	To	emphasize	this	point,	macros	were	used	to	implement	an	early	virtual	machine,	SNOBOL4	(1967),	which	was	written	in	SNOBOL	Implementation	Language	(SIL),	a	virtual
  machine	assembly	language.	The	target	machine	translates	this	into	its	own	code	using	assembler	macros.[30]	At	the	time,	it	provided	a	high	degree	of	mobility.	Macros	were	used	to	customize	large	customer-specific	software	systems	in	the	mainframe	era,	and	were	also	used	by	customer	employees	to	meet	the	needs	of	their	employers	by	creating
  special	versions	of	manufacturers'	operating	systems.	This	has	been	done,	for	example,	by	systems	programmers	working	with	IBM	Conversation	Monitor	System/Virtual	Machine	(VM/CMS)	and	IBM	add-ons	for	"real-time	transaction	processing",	CICS	customer	information	management	system	and	ACP/TPF,	an	airline.	/	financial	system	that
  originated	in	the	1970s	and	still	uses	many	large	computer	reservation	systems	(CRS)	and	credit	card	systems.	It	is	also	possible	to	use	only	the	macro	processing	capabilities	of	the	assembler	to	generate	the	written	code.B.	to	generate	a	COBOL	version	of	a	program	with	an	assembler-only	macro	containing	lines	of	COBOL	code	in	build-time
  operators	that	tell	the	assembler	to	generate	arbitrary	code.	IBM	OS/360	uses	macros	to	perform	system	builds.	The	user	specifies	options	by	coding	a	series	of	assembler	macros.	Building	these	macros	creates	a	workflow	for	building	the	system,	including	the	job	control	language	and	utility	control	commands.	This	is	because	the	concept	of	"macro
  processing"	as	it	was	understood	in	the	1960s	is	independent	of	the	concept	of	"assembly",	which	in	the	modern	sense	is	text	processing	and	not	object	code	generation.	The	concept	of	macro	processing	appeared	and	appears	in	the	C	programming	language,	which	supports	"preprocessor	statements"	for	setting	variables	and	performing	conditional
  tests	on	their	values.	Unlike	some	earlier	macro	processors	in	assemblers,	the	C	preprocessor	is	not	Turing-complete	because	it	does	not	have	the	ability	to	loop	or	"go	to",	which	allows	programs	to	loop.	Despite	their	macro-processing	power,	many	high-level	languages	​​(the	major	exceptions	are	C,	C++,	and	PL/I)	have	failed	to	do	so	while	remaining
  a	persistent	assembly	language.	Macro	parameter	replacement	is	by	name	only:	during	macro	processing,	the	parameter	value	is	textually	replaced	with	its	name.	The	most	notorious	class	of	errors	that	resulted	from	this	was	using	a	parameter	that	was	itself	an	expression	instead	of	a	simple	name	when	the	macro	author	expected	a	name.	Macro:	foo:
  macro	a	loading	a*b	was	intended	for	the	caller	to	provide	a	variable	name	and	the	"global"	variable	or	constant	b	would	be	used	to	multiply	"a".	When	foo	is	called	with	an	a-c	parameter,	the	a-c*b	load	macro	is	expanded.	To	avoid	possible	confusion,	macro	users	can	put	parentheses	around	formal	parameters	in	macro	definitions,	or	callers	can	enter
  parentheses.Structured	programming	support	Macro	packages	have	been	written	that	provide	structured	programming	elements	to	perform	coding.	The	earliest	example	of	this	approach	was	the	Concept	14	macro	suite	[32]	originally	designed	by	Harlan	Mills	(March	1970)	and	implemented	by	Marvin	Kessler	at	IBM's	Federal	Systems	Division,
  IF/ELSE/ENDIF,	and	a	similar	control	flow	provided	blocks	for	the	operating	system.	/360	assembler	programs.	It	was	a	way	to	reduce	or	eliminate	the	use	of	GOTO	operations	in	assembly	code,	which	is	one	of	the	main	factors	causing	spaghetti	in	assembly	language.	This	approach	was	widely	adopted	in	the	early	1980s	(the	last	days	of	widespread
  use	of	symbolic	languages	​​of	instruction).	The	IBM	High	Level	Assembler	toolkit[33]	includes	such	a	macro	package.	An	interesting	project	was	A-Natural,	a	"stream-oriented"	assembler	for	8080/Z80	processors	[34]	by	Whitesmiths	Ltd.	(Creator	of	the	Idris	Unix	operating	system	and	considered	the	first	commercial	C	compiler).	).	The	language	was
  classified	as	assembly	language	because	it	worked	with	raw	machine	elements	such	as	opcodes,	registers,	and	memory	references;	but	it	contained	expression	syntax	to	determine	the	execution	order.	Parentheses	and	other	special	characters,	along	with	block-oriented	structured	programming	constructs,	controlled	the	order	of	generated	statements.
  A-natural	was	designed	as	an	object-oriented	C	compiler	language,	not	for	hand-coding,	but	its	logical	syntax	won	it	a	few	fans.	Since	the	collapse	of	large-scale	assembler	development,	there	has	been	little	need	for	more	sophisticated	assemblers.	Nevertheless,	they	continue	to	be	developed	and	used	where	lack	of	resources	or	idiosyncrasies	in	the
  architecture	of	the	target	system	prevent	effective	use	of	high-level	languages.[36]	Assemblers	with	a	powerful	macro	engine	allow	structured	programming	using	macros	such	as	B.	Macro	switches	supplied	with	the	Masm32	package	(this	code	is	the	complete	program):\masm32\include\masm32rt.inc	;	use	Masm32	library	.code	demomain:	REPEAT
  20	switch	rv(nrandom,	9)	;	generate	a	number	from	0	to	8	mov	ecx,	7	case	0	print	"case	0"	case	ecx	;	unlike	most	other	programming	languages	​​print	"case	7";	Masm32	switch	allows	"variable	cases"	case	1	..	3	.if	eax==1	print	"case	1"	.elseif	eax==2	print	"case	2"	.else	print	"case	1	to	3:	other"	.endif	case	4	,	6,	8	print	"cases	4,	6	or	8"	default	mov
  ebx,	19	;	print	20	stars	.Try	again	print	"*"	dec	ebx	.Sign?	;	loop	until	character	flag	is	set	endw	print	chr$(13,	10)	ENDM	exit	end	demomain	Using	a	symbolic	instruction	language	Historical	perspective	Symbolic	instruction	languages	​​were	not	available	in	the	days	of	computer	programming.	Kathleen	Booth	is	"credited	with	the	invention	of	the
  symbolic	language	of	instruction"[37][38]	based	on	theoretical	work	she	began	in	1947	while	working	on	ARC2	at	Birkbeck	at	London	University,	on	the	advice	of	Andrew	Booth	(later	her	husband)	and	mathematician	John.	von	Neumann	and	physicist	Hermann	Goldstein	at	the	Institute	for	Advanced	Study.	In	late	1948,	EDSAC	(Electronic	Delay
  Storage	Automatic	Calculator)	had	an	assembler	(called	"first	order")	integrated	into	its	bootstrap	program.	It	used	a	one-letter	mnemonic	developed	by	David	Wheeler,	who	is	credited	by	the	IEEE	Computer	Society	as	the	inventor	of	the	first	"assembler".	Reports	on	EDSAC	coined	the	term	"assembly"	to	refer	to	the	process	of	assembling	the	field	in
  the	manual.	SOAP	(Symbolic	Optimal	Assembly	Program)	was	a	symbolic	instruction	language	for	the	IBM	650	computer	written	by	Stan	Poley	in	1955.[43]	Symbolic	instruction	languages	​​eliminate	many	of	the	error-prone,	time-consuming,	and	time-consuming	first-generation	programs	required	on	older	computers,	freeing	programmers	from	the
  tedium	of	memorizing	numeric	codes	and	counting	addresses.	They	used	to	be	widely	used	in	all	kinds	of	programs.	However,	by	the	late	1950s	[he	should	have	mentioned]	they	were	in	usesupplanted	by	higher-level	languages	​​in	search	of	increased	programming	productivity.	Today,	assembly	language	is	still	used	to	directly	control	hardware,	access
  specialized	CPU	instructions,	or	solve	critical	performance	problems.	Typical	applications	are	device	drivers,	low-level	embedded	systems,	and	real-time	systems	(see	Current	Usage).	In	the	past,	many	programs	were	written	entirely	in	assembly	language.	The	Burroughs	MCP	(1961)	was	the	first	computer	for	which	the	operating	system	was	not
  designed	entirely	in	assembly	language;	It	was	written	in	ESPOL	(Problem-Oriented	Execution	System	Language),	a	dialect	of	Algol.	Many	commercial	applications	were	also	written	in	assembly	language,	including	much	of	the	IBM	mainframe	software	written	by	large	corporations.	COBOL,	FORTRAN,	and	some	PL/I	eventually	supplanted	much	of
  this	work,	although	many	large	organizations	retained	assembly	language	application	infrastructure	well	into	1990.	Most	early	microcomputers,	including	most	operating	systems	and	large	applications,	relied	on	hand-written	assembly	language.	This	was	because	these	systems	had	severe	resource	constraints,	required	special	memory	and	display
  architectures,	and	provided	limited,	buggy	system	services.	Perhaps	more	important	was	the	lack	of	high-quality,	high-level	language	compilers	suitable	for	use	with	microcomputers.	A	psychological	factor	may	have	also	played	a	role:	the	first	generation	of	microcomputer	programmers	maintained	their	position	as	a	lover	of	"wires	and	pliers."	In	a
  more	commercial	context,	the	main	reasons	for	using	assembly	language	were	minimal	bloat	(size),	minimal	overhead,	increased	speed,	and	reliability.	Common	examples	of	large	assembly	language	programs	from	this	period	include	the	IBM	PC	DOS	operating	systems,	the	Turbo	Pascal	compiler,	and	early	applications	such	as	the	Lotus	1-2-3
  spreadsheet	program.	Assembly	language	was	used	to	get	the	best	performance	from	the	Sega	Saturn.the	development	and	programming	of	the	game	was	very	difficult.[45]	Another	example	is	the	1993	arcade	game	NBA	Jam.	Assembler	has	long	been	the	primary	programming	language	for	many	popular	home	computers	of	the	1980s	and	1990s
  (such	as	the	MSX,	Sinclair	ZX	Spectrum,	Commodore	64,	Commodore	Amiga,	and	Atari	ST).	This	was	largely	because	the	BASIC	dialects	interpreted	on	these	systems	offered	insufficient	execution	speed	as	well	as	insufficient	capabilities	to	take	full	advantage	of	the	hardware	available	on	these	systems.	Some	systems	even	have	an	integrated
  development	environment	(IDE)	with	very	advanced	debugging	and	macro	capabilities.	Some	compilers	available	for	the	Radio	Shack	TRS-80	and	its	successors	had	the	ability	to	combine	built-in	assembly	source	code	with	high-level	program	instructions.	After	compilation,	the	embedded	assembler	generated	embedded	machine	code.	Current	usage
  There	has	been	debate	about	the	utility	and	performance	of	symbolic	learning	languages	​​compared	to	high-level	languages.	While	the	assembler	has	specific	niche	applications	where	it	is	important	(see	below),	there	are	other	optimization	tools.	As	of	July	2017	[updated],	the	TIOBE	Programming	Language	Popularity	Index	ranks	assembler	11th,
  ahead	of,	for	example,	Visual	Basic.	Assembler	can	be	used	to	optimize	speed	or	size.	In	the	case	of	speed	optimization,	modern	optimizing	compilers	are	claimed	to	translate	high-level	language	code	that	can	run	as	fast	as	hand-written	assembly,	despite	the	counterexamples	found.	[52]	The	complexity	of	modern	processors	and	memory	subsystems
  makes	efficient	optimization	increasingly	difficult	for	both	compilers	and	assembly	language	programmers.	Furthermore,	the	increase	in	CPU	performance	means	that	most	CPUs	remain	idle	most	of	the	time[55]	with	latency	due	to	predictable	bottlenecks	such	as	cache	misses,	I/O,	and	paging.	This	made	the	raw	code	execution	speed	approxmany
  programmers	There	are	certain	situations	in	which	programmers	may	choose	to	use	a	symbolic	instruction	language:	writing	code	for	systems	with	older	CPUs	[clarification	needed]	that	have	limited	high-level	language	capabilities,	such	as	the	Atari	2600,	Commodore	64,	and	graphing	calculators.	Programs	for	these	computers	from	the	1970s	and
  1980s	are	often	written	in	the	context	of	the	demoscene	or	retrogaming	subcultures.	Code	that	must	interact	directly	with	hardware,	such	as	device	drivers	and	interrupt	handlers.	In	an	embedded	processor	or	DSP,	interrupts	with	a	high	repetition	rate	require	the	least	number	of	cycles	per	interrupt,	for	example	an	interrupt	occurs	1000	or	10,000
  times	per	second.	Programs	that	need	to	use	processor-specific	instructions	that	are	not	implemented	in	the	compiler.	A	common	example	is	the	bit	rotation	instruction,	which	is	the	basis	of	many	encryption	algorithms,	as	well	as	byte	parity	checking	or	4-bit	addition	checks.	A	small	stand-alone	executable	is	required	that	must	run	without	reference
  to	runtime	components	or	libraries	associated	with	the	high-level	language.	Examples	include	phone	firmware,	automotive	fuel	and	ignition	systems,	air	conditioning	systems,	security	systems	and	sensors.	Programs	with	performance-sensitive	inner	loops	where	assembler	provides	optimization	capabilities	that	are	difficult	to	achieve	in	a	high-level
  language.	For	example,	linear	algebra	with	BLAS[50][57]	or	discrete	cosine	transform	(e.g.	SIMD	assembler	version	with	x264[58]).	Programs	that	create	vector	functions	for	programs	in	higher-level	languages	​​such	as	C.	In	higher-level	languages,	this	is	sometimes	aided	by	compiler-specific	functions	that	map	directly	to	SIMD	mnemonics,	but	still
  create	assembler-specific	one-to-one	conversions	for	given	processor	vector.	Real-time	applications	such	as	simulation,	aerospace	systems	and	medical	equipment.	For	example	athe	telemetry	system	must	be	interpreted	and	operate	within	a	strictly	defined	time	frame.	Such	systems	must	eliminate	sources	of	unpredictable	latency	that	can	be	created
  by	(some)	interpreted	languages,	automatic	garbage	collection,	paging,	or	preemptive	multitasking.	However,	some	higher-level	languages	​​contain	run-time	components	and	operating	system	interfaces	that	can	cause	these	delays.	The	choice	of	assembly	or	lower-level	languages	​​for	such	systems	gives	developers	more	understanding	and	control	over
  the	details	of	processing.	Cryptographic	algorithms	that	must	always	take	the	same	amount	of	time	to	execute,	preventing	timing	attacks.	Modify	and	extend	legacy	code	written	for	IBM	mainframes.[59][60]	A	situation	where	full	control	over	the	environment	is	required,	in	extremely	high	security	situations	where	nothing	can	be	taken	for	granted.
  Computer	viruses,	boot	loaders,	drivers	for	certain	devices,	or	other	items	that	are	very	close	to	low-level	hardware	or	operating	system.	Instruction	set	simulators	for	monitoring,	tracing	and	debugging,	where	extra	overhead	is	kept	to	a	minimum.	A	situation	where	there	is	no	high-level	language	on	a	new	or	specialized	processor	for	which	there	is
  no	cross	compiler.	Reverse	engineering	and	modification	of	program	files,	such	as:	Existing	binaries	that	may	or	may	not	have	been	originally	written	in	a	higher	level	language,	such	as	attempting	to	reproduce	programs	whose	source	code	is	unavailable	or	lost,	or	cracking	copies	of	copyrighted	software	.	Video	games	(also	called	ROM	hacking),
  which	is	possible	in	several	ways.	The	most	common	method	is	to	change	the	program	code	at	the	assembler	level.	The	language	of	symbolic	instructions	is	still	taught	in	most	computer	science	and	electronic	engineering	programs.	Although	few	programmers	now	regularly	work	with	assembler	as	a	tool,	the	basic	concepts	remain	the	same.	Basic
  problems	like	binary	arithmetic,	memory	allocation,	stackcharacter	set	encoding,	interrupt	handling,	and	compiler	design	would	be	difficult	to	study	in	detail	without	understanding	how	a	computer	works	in	hardware.	Since	the	behavior	of	a	computer	is	primarily	determined	by	its	instruction	set,	the	logical	way	to	learn	such	concepts	is	to	learn	a
  symbolic	instruction	language.	Most	modern	computers	have	similar	instruction	sets.	So	learning	one	assembler	is	enough	to	learn:	I)	basic	concepts;	ii)	recognizing	situations	where	it	may	be	appropriate	to	use	symbolic	instruction	language;	and	III)	to	see	how	efficiently	executable	code	can	be	generated	from	high-level	languages.	Generic
  application	assembly	language	is	commonly	used	in	system	boot	code,	low-level	code	that	initializes	and	tests	the	system	hardware	before	booting	into	the	operating	system	and	is	often	stored	in	ROM.	(An	example	would	be	the	BIOS	on	IBM	and	CP/M	compatible	computers.)	Symbolic	instruction	language	is	often	used	in	low-level	code	such	as
  operating	system	kernels	that	cannot	rely	on	the	presence	of	pre-existing	system	calls	and	must	actually	implement	for	a	specific	processor	architecture	on	which	the	system	will	run.	Some	compilers	first	translate	high-level	languages	​​into	assemblies	before	fully	compiling	them,	allowing	you	to	view	the	assembly	code	for	debugging	and	optimization.
  Some	compilers	of	relatively	low-level	languages,	such	as	Pascal	or	C,	allow	the	programmer	to	insert	the	assembler	directly	into	the	source	code	(so-called	inline	assembler).	Programs	with	these	capabilities	can	then	create	abstractions	using	different	assembly	languages	​​on	each	hardware	platform.	Portable	system	code	can	then	use	these	CPU-
  specific	components	through	a	single	interface.	The	symbolic	instruction	language	is	useful	in	reverse	engineering.	Many	programs	are	distributed	only	as	machine	code,	which	can	be	easily	translated	into	assembler	using	a	disassembler,	but	more	difficult	to	translate	into	a	language.language	with	a	decompiler.	Tools	like	Interactive	Disassembler
  make	extensive	use	of	disassembly	for	this	purpose.	This	technique	is	used	by	hackers	to	crack	commercial	software	and	by	competitors	to	create	software	with	similar	results	from	competing	companies.	Assembler	is	used	to	increase	execution	speed,	especially	on	early	personal	computers	with	limited	processing	power	and	RAM.	The	assembler	can
  be	used	to	generate	blocks	of	data	without	high-level	language	overhead	from	formatted	and	commented	source	code	for	use	in	other	code.	See	also	Computer	Programming	Portal	Compiler	Comparison	of	assemblers	Disassembler	Hexadecimal	instruction	set	architecture	Small	human	training	computer	model	with	symbolic	instruction	language
  Nibble	Typed	assembler	Notes	^	Other	than	meta-assemblers	^	However,	this	does	not	mean	that	assemblers	implementing	these	languages	​​are	universal.	^	"Used	as	a	meta-assembler,	it	allows	the	user	to	create	their	own	programming	languages	​​and	generate	processors	for	such	languages	​​with	minimal	effort."	^	This	is	one	of	two	redundant
  forms	of	this	instruction	that	work	identically.	The	8086	and	some	other	processors	from	the	late	1970s	and	early	1980s	have	redundant	instruction	sets	because	it	was	easier	for	engineers	to	build	these	processors	(to	fit	a	limited-size	silicon	IC)	with	redundant	code	than	to	remove	them	(see	terms	indifferent	).	Each	assembler	usually	generates	only
  one	of	two	or	more	redundant	instruction	encodings,	but	the	disassembler	usually	recognizes	any	of	them.	^	AMD	used	Intel's	8086,	8088,	and	80286	processors,	and	possibly	the	8080A	and/or	8085A	processors	under	license	from	Intel,	but	starting	with	the	80386,	Intel	refused	to	share	its	x86	processor	design	with	anyone...	AMD	sued.	for	breach	of
  contract	-	and	AMD	designed,	manufactured	and	sold	32-bit	and	64-bit	x86	processors	without	Intel's	help	or	support.	BibliographyIn	Autocoder,	a	macro	definition	is	a	7070	macro	generator	called	by	assembler;	Autocoder	provides	special	macros	for	use	with	macro	generators.	^	"The	following	minor	restrictions	apply	to	the	use	of	the	1401
  autoencoder,	macro	coding..."	References	^	a	b	"Assembly	language".	High-level	assembler	for	z/OS	and	z/VM	and	z/VSE	Language	Reference	Version	1	Release	6.	IBM.	2014	[1990].	SK26-4940-06.	^	"Montage:	An	Overview"	(PDF).	Computer	science	and	engineering.	Ohio	State	University	College	of	Engineering.	2016.	Archived	(PDF)	from	the
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  discussions...^	Campbell-Kelly,	Martin	(April	1982).	"The	Evolution	of	Computer	Programming	in	Britain	(1945–1955)".	IEEE	Annals	of	the	History	of	Computing.	4(2):	121-139.	doi:	10.1109/MAHC.1982.10016.	S2CID	14861159.	^	Campbell-Kelly,	Martin	(1980).	"EDSAC	Programming".	IEEE	Annals	of	the	History	of	Computing.	2(1):7-36.	doi:
  10.1109/MAHC.1980.10009.	↑	"Computer	Pioneers	Award	1985"	for	assembler	programming	"David	Wheeler".	^	Wilkes,	Maurice	Vincent	(1949).	"EDSAC	-	Electronic	Calculator".	Journal	of	Scientific	Instruments.	26(12):385-391.	Bib	code:	1949JScI...26..385W.	doi:	10.1088/0950-7671/26/12/301.	^	da	Cruz,	Frank	(May	17,	2019).	"IBM	650	Magnetic
  Drum	Calculator".	History	of	Computer	Science	-	A	Timeline	of	Computer	Science.	University	of	Columbia.	Archived	from	the	original	on	February	15,	2020.	Retrieved	January	17,	2012.	^	Collen,	Morris	F.	(March	-	April	1994).	"The	Beginnings	of	Computer	Science".	Journal	of	the	American	Association	for	Medical	Informatics.	1(2):96-97.	doi:
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  ISBN	978-1-48227572-8.	Retrieved	March	24,	2020.	There	is	always	debate	about	the	applicability	of	assembly	language	to	our	modern	programming	world.	↑	Xie,	Paul	(March	24,	2020)	[2016,	1996].	"Program	Optimization".	Archived	from	the	original	on	March	24,	2020.	Retrieved	March	24,	2020.	...	Design	changes	usually	affect
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  University	of	North	Carolina	at	Chapel	Hill.	Horowitz,	Ellis	(ed.).	Assembler,	compiler	and	program	translations.	Computer	Software	Engineering	Series	(first	printing,	1st	edition).	Potomac,	Maryland,	USA:	Computer	Science	Press,	Inc.	ISBN	0-914894-23-4.	ISSN	0888-2088.	LCCN	78-21905.	Retrieved	on	03/20/2020.	(2+xiv+270+6	pages)
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  Peter;	Statue,	John	(1986).	Peter	Norton's	Assembler	Language	Book	for	the	IBM	PC.	New	York,	USA:	Brady	Books.	Singer,	Michael	(1980).	PDP-11.	Assembly	language	programming	and	machine	organization.	New	York,	USA:	John	Wiley	&	Sons.	Sweetman,	Dominic	(1999).	See	Running	MIPS.	Morgan	Kaufman	Publishers.	ISBN	1-55860-410-3.
  Waldron,	John	(1998).	Introduction	to	programming	with	RISC	assembler.	Addison-Wesley.	ISBN	0-201-39828-1.	Yurichev,	Dennis	(2020-03-04)	[2013].	"Understanding	Assembly	(Reverse	Engineering	for	Beginners)"	(PDF).	Archived	(PDF)	from	the	original	on	March	24,	2020.	Retrieved	March	24,	2020.	"ASM	Community	Book".	2009.	Archived	from
  the	original	on	2013-05-30.	Retrieved	2013-05-30.	("On-linefull	of	useful	ASM	information,	tutorials,	and	code	examples"	from	the	ASM	community,	archived	at	the	Internet	Archive.)	Learning	Assembly	Language	NASM	-	Netwide	Assembly	Programming	Example	Building	Windows	Applications	in	Assembly	Assembly	Tips	for	Optimizing	Assembly	by
  Mark	Larson	Assembly	Language	for	Portal	Diagrams	machine	code:	computer	programming.	and	meetings	of	a	deliberative	assembly,	meetings	of	members,	p	arbitration	procedures	for	making	decisions	through	the	General	Assembly,	a	formal	meeting	of	members	of	organizations	or	their	representatives	The	House	of	Assembly,	the	name	of	the
  legislature	or	the	lower	house	of	the	bicameral	legislature	The	National	Assembly,	or	the	legislature,	or	the	bicameral	lower	house	the	legislature	in	some	countries	National	(disambiguation)	people's	assembly,	a	local	civil	assembly,	the	purpose	of	which	is	to	raise	issues	important	to	society,	to	promote,	fight	and	protect	the	right	of	the	individual	to
  unite	and	collectively	express	common	interests	modeling,	technology	and	methods	of	computer	assisted	design	andVisualization	software	Assembly	line,	a	manufacturing	process	where	parts	are	added	to	the	product	one	at	a	time.	Self-assembly,	the	process	by	which	disordered	components	form	an	organized	structure	without	external	instructions
  Sequence	assembly,	the	process	of	reconstructing	a	long	DNA	sequence	from	multiple	fragments	Assembly	principles,	a	set	of	controversial	principles	in	ecology	proposed	by	Jared	Diamond	to	explain	the	composition	of	a	species	community.	Virion	assembly	(virology).	Same	Version	Resource	Assembly	(CLI),	an	XML	wrapper	around	a	library	of
  compiled	code	(the	XML-wrapped	library	itself	is	sometimes	called	an	assembly)	used	for	deployment,	versioning,	and	security	assembly	(demo	site).	Annual	computer	event	Finlandia	Arts	and	Entertainment	Assemble	(Collective),	a	London-based	art,	architecture	and	design	collective	Assembly	(event	organizer)	One	of	the	main	developers	Edinburgh
  Festival	Fringe	Assembly	(film),	2007	Chinese	war	drama	Assembly	(TV	series),	series	2015	TV	show	Music	Assemble	(album),	album	Grown	at	Home	Assembly	(horn	call),	a	call	that	brought	together	a	team	of	soldiers	from	the	Assembly	(John	Fox	album),	1992	Assembly	(Tragedy	Theater	album)	The	Assembly,	a	synthpop	project	started	in	1983
  Assembly	,	Joe	Strummer's	2021	compilation	album	Other	Uses	Assembly	Station,	a	rapid	transit	station	in	Boston,	Massachusetts,	United	States	Assembly	Bristol,	an	office	building	in	England,	United	Kingdom	See	also	All	pages	with	a	band	title	All	pages	with	a	band	title.	member	(disambiguation)	Asse	Brice	Assie	Assi	(disambiguation)	Topics
  related	to	the	same	term	This	disambiguation	page	lists	articles	related	to	the	title	"Assembly"Change	the	link	to	point	directly	to	the	item	you	want.	Retrieved	from	"	"