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International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Current Research
ISSN: 2321-3124
Available at: http://ijmcr.com
Research Article
An Overview of the Principles and Effects of Irradiation on Food Processing &
Preservation
1 2 3 4
J.T. Liberty, D.I. Dickson, A.E. Achebe and M.B. Salihu
1
Department of Agricultural & Bioresources Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
2
Department of Microbiology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
3
Department of Home Economics, College of Education, Minna, Niger State
4
Department of Educational Foundation, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria
Accepted 04 December 2013, Available online 10 December 2013, (Nov/Dec 2013 issue)
Abstract
When food irradiation is carried out under Good Manufacturing Practice conditions, is commended as an effective,
widely applicable food processing method judged to be safe on extensive available evidence, that can reduce the risk of
food poisoning, control food spoilage and extend the shelf-life of foods without detriment to health and with minimal
effect on nutritional or sensory quality. This view has been endorsed by international bodies such as the World Health
Organisation(WHO), the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) and Codex Alimentarius. Food irradiation is the
processing of food products by ionising radiation in order to control foodborne pathogens, reduce microbial load and
insect infestation, inhibit the germination of root crops, and extend the durable life of perishable produce. The use of
irradiation has been approved for about 50 different types of food and at least 33 countries are using the technology
commercially. Despite the fact that irradiation has been used for decades for food disinfection that satisfies quarantine
requirements in trade, health concerns over the consumption of irradiated food continue to attract attention. This study
reviewed the basic principles, applications and the associated potential health risk, if any, posed to consumers as a
result of consumption of irradiated food. Review of the available evidence showed that although irradiation processing
leads to chemical changes and nutrient losses, the safety and nutrient quality of irradiated foods are comparable to
foods that have been treated with other conventional food processing methods such as heating, pasteurisation and
canning when the technology is used as recommended and good manufacturing practices are followed.
Keywords: chemical changes, food Irradiation, food processing and preservation, shelf-life, spoilage
1.0 Introduction
Food irradiation is the processing of food products by
There are many processing methods have been ionising radiation in order to control foodborne
developed to help prevent food spoilage and improve pathogens, reduce microbial load and insect infestation,
safety. The traditional methods of preservation, such as inhibit the germination of root crops, and extend the
drying, smoking and salting have been supplemented with durable life of perishable produce (International
pasteurisation (by heat), canning (commercial sterilisation Consultative Group, 1991).
by heat), refrigeration, freezing and chemical Food irradiation is perhaps the single most studied
preservatives. Food irradiation is another technology that food processing technology for toxicological safety in the
can be added to the list. It is not new; interest was shown history of food preservation. Studies pertaining to the
in Germany in 1896 and it began in the early 1920s, while safety and nutritional adequacy of irradiated foods date
in the 1950/60s the US Army Natick Soldier Center back to the 1950s and were frequently associated with
(NATICK) experimented with both low dose and high dose the use of radiation to sterilize foods. Hundreds of short-
irradiation for military rations (Steward, 2004(a)). In the term and long-term safety studies led to the approval of
UK, at the same time, the Low Temperature Research one or more foods for irradiation by presently more than
Station programme concentrated on low dose sixty countries. These studies are thoroughly reviewed in
pasteurisation (Hannan, 1955). Irradiation is extensively The Safety and Nutritional Adequacy of Irradiated Foods,
used in the medical field for sterilising instruments, published by the World Health Organization (WHO 1994).
dressings etc.
236|Int. J. of Multidisciplinary and Current research, Nov/Dec 2013
J.T Liberty et al An Overview of the Principles and Effects of Irradiation on Food Processing & Preservation
The international symbol showing irradiated food is called to an irradiation chamber. The food is exposed to gamma
Radura, showed below. rays from a radioactive source such as cobalt60 (main
source for gamma processing of foods) or cesium137 at a
controlled rate. The gamma rays evenly penetrate the
food product, killing harmful microorganisms, parasites,
or insects without altering the nature of the food. These
rays do not remain in the food (Roberts et al., 1995).
Gamma rays are more powerful than the rays emitted
by a microwave oven. Rays from a microwave oven cause
food to heat rapidly, whereas gamma rays, with much
shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies, penetrate
Fig 1: The ‘Radura’, the international symbol for through the food so rapidly that no heat is produced.
irradiated food. In the center is an agricultural product, a After food is irradiated, it is stored and may be
food, which is in a closed package denoted by the circle, transported back to the processing plant for further
and which is irradiated by penetrating rays. handling and packaging. Once the food has been
irradiated, it must be handled appropriately to prevent
According to the International Atomic Energy Agency recontamination (Roberts et al., 1995).
(IAEA), more than 50 countries have approved the use of The irradiation cell (source) consists of cobalt60 or
irradiation for about 50 different types of food, and 33 cesium137 rods in stainless steel tubes. These tubes are
are using the technology commercially. The positive list of stored in water and raised into a concrete irradiation
irradiated products varies between countries but is often chamber to dose the food. Over a period of years the
limited to spices, herbs, seasonings, some fresh or dried cobalt60 or cesium137 rods slowly decay to non-
fruits and vegetables, seafood, meat and meat products, radioactive nickel and non-radioactive barium,
poultry and egg products. Despite the fact that irradiation respectively. No radioactive waste is produced at a food
has been used for decades for food disinfection and irradiation facility, and no irradiation facility could have a
satisfying quarantine requirements in trade, there is meltdown that could jeopardize the safety and health of
considerable debate on the issue of health concerns over plant workers and other citizens of a community. Food
the consumption of irradiated food. These include irradiation facilities do not have nuclear reactors. The
concerns over the toxicity of the chemicals generated and food is exposed only to the degrading of the cobalt60 or
the change in nutritional quality of food products after the cesium137 (Roberts et al., 1995).
irradiation. Below is the facility used for irradiation. Foods may be irradiated with electron beams
produced from accelerators. This method of irradiation
can only be used on foods less than 4 inches thick
because of the limited penetrating capacity of the
electron beams. This method would be very effective on
food such as hamburger patties.
Table1: Irradiation Conversion Units
1,000,000 1 megarad (Mrad)
1 gray (Gy) 100 rads
1 kilgray (kGy) 100,000rads
1kGy 100 kilorads (krads)
1kGy 0.1Mrad
Fig. 2: Typical food irradiation facility (courtesy Nordian 10kGy 1Mrad
International, Ontario, Canada)
The irradiation dose applied to a food product is
2.0 Principles of Food Irradiation measured in terms of kilograys (kGy) (Table 1). One
kilogray is equivalent to 1,000 grays (Gy), 0.1 megarad
Foods such as poultry are processed, packaged with (Mrad), or 100,000 rads. The basic unit is the gray, which
oxygen-permeable film, and transported fresh or frozen is the amount of irradiation energy that 1 kilogram of
to an irradiation facility. Currently the only commercial food receives. The amount of irradiation applied to a food
poultry irradiation facility approved by the U.S. product is carefully controlled and monitored by plant
Department of Agriculture (USDA) is Food Technology quality control personnel and USDA inspectors. The
Services, Inc., in Mulberry, Florida. At the irradiation irradiation dose applied to a food product will depend
facility, the palletized product is transferred by conveyor upon the composition of the food, the degree of
237 | Int. J. of Multidisciplinary and Current research, Nov/Dec 2013
J.T Liberty et al An Overview of the Principles and Effects of Irradiation on Food Processing & Preservation
perishability, and the potential to harbor harmful meat and fish products. This triggers the development of
microorganisms. The amount of radiation that a food species such as OH−, hydrated electron and H+, which can
product absorbs is measured by a dosimeter (Roberts et then induce several chemical reactions with food
al., 1995). constituents. Studies show that the quantity of radiolysis
products varies as a function of fat content and fat
2.1 Ionising radiation and their sources composition, as well as with the temperature during the
irradiation process and the actual dose of radiation used
According to the Codex General Standard for Irradiated (Merrit et al., 1979). When fatty acids are exposed to
Foods, ionising radiations recommended for use in food high-energy radiation they undergo preferential cleavage
processing are: (I) gamma rays produced from the in the ester-carbonyl region giving rise to certain
60 137
radioisotopes cobalt-60 ( Co) and cesium-137 ( Cs), and radiolytic compounds that are specific for each fatty acid
(II) machine sources generated electron beams (Nawar et al., 1996). The strong oxidizer ozone is
(maximum level of 10 MeV) and X-ray (maximum level of produced from oxygen during food irradiation and can
5 MeV) (CAC,2003). promote the oxidization of lipids and myoglobin
(Venugopal et al., 1999).
(I) Gamma rays produced from radioisotopes cobalt-60 Many research studies have been carried out in recent
and cesium-137 years on meat and fish irradiation and its impact on lipids.
Experiments carried out on chicken revealed no
Cobalt-60 is produced in a nuclear reactor via neutron significant difference in total saturated and unsaturated
bombardment of highly refined cobalt-59 (59Co) pellets, fatty acids between irradiated (1, 3, 6 kGy) and non-
while cesium-137 is produced as a result of uranium irradiated frozen (−20°C) chicken muscle (Rady et al.,
fission. Both cobalt-60 and cesium-137 emit highly 1987). Other studies showed that e-beam irradiation (2.5
penetrating gamma rays that can be used to treat food in kGy) seemed to increase the levels of thiobarbituric acid-
bulk or in its final packaging. Cobalt-60 is, at present, the reactive substances (TBARS) in ground beef, but the
radioisotope most extensively employed for gamma difference between irradiated and non-irradiated samples
irradiation of food (Steward, 2001). was not statistically significant (Nam et al.,2003). The
results of Yilmaz and Gecgel (2007) showed that
(II) Electron beams and X-ray generated from machine irradiation in ground beef induced the formation of trans
sources fatty acids. However, the ratio of total unsaturated fatty
acids to total saturated fatty acids was 0.85, 0.86, 0.87,
A major advantage of machine-sourced ionising radiation and 0.89 in irradiated ground beef samples (1, 3, 5, and 7
is that no radioactive substance is involved in the whole kGy, respectively) whereas for the control samples it was
processing system. Powered by electricity, electron-beam 0.85. Fish lipids are more unsaturated than lipids in red
machines use linear accelerators to produce accelerating meats and therefore are more susceptible to oxidation
electron beams to near the speed of light. The high- (Khayat et al., 1983). An examination of the effect of
energy electron beams have limited penetration power irradiation at 10 kGy on the linoleic and linolenic acid
and are suitable only for foods of relatively shallow depth contents of grass prawns found that irradiation resulted
(Steward, 2001). Electron beams can be converted into in 16% decrease in linoleic acid content, whereas linolenic
various energies of X-rays by the bombardment with a acid was not affected significantly (Hau et al., 1993). In
metallic target. Although X-rays have been shown to be the case of Spanish mackerel, C16:0 and C16:1 fatty acids
more penetrating than gamma rays from cobalt-60 and decreased when irradiated at 1.5 to 10 kGy. (Al-Kahtani et
cesium-137, the efficiency of conversion from electrons al., 1996). No changes were reported in the fatty acid
to X-rays is generally less than 10% and this has hindered composition of two species of Australian marine fish
the use of machine sourced radiation so far (ICGFI, 1999). irradiated at doses up to 6.0 kGy and the levels of fatty
acids in oil remained stable in the irradiated fish samples
3.0 Some Effects of Food Irradiation whereas they decreased in non-irradiated fish (Armstrong
et al., 1994). The extent of lipid oxidation was dependent
3.1 Effect of irradiation on lipids on the irradiation dose. An analysis of the literature
concluded that when lipids are irradiated under
In response to the continuously growing role of conditions which are met in commercial food processing
irradiation in food preservation, several reviews and (≤7 kGy), there is no significant loss of nutritional value
research studies have been published on the irradiation (Thomas, 1988).
of foods of both animal and plant origin over the past
years (Arvanitoyannis et al., 2009; Arvanitoyannis et al., 3.2 Effect of irradiation on proteins and amino acids
2010). The application of ionizing radiation results in the
radiolysis of water, which is present in most foods such as Damage caused to protein by ionizing radiation includes
238 | Int. J. of Multidisciplinary and Current research, Nov/Dec 2013
J.T Liberty et al An Overview of the Principles and Effects of Irradiation on Food Processing & Preservation
deamination, decarboxylation (Diehl, 1990), reduction of are similar to those associated with thermal processing
disulfide linkages, oxidation of sulfydryl groups, cleavage (Urbain, 1986). It was found that e-beam irradiated (0 or
of peptide bonds and changes of valency states of the 4.5 kGy) raw pork patties produced more volatiles than
coordinated metal ions in enzymes (Delincee, 1983). did non-irradiated patties, and the proportion of volatiles
Other studies indicated that there was no significant varied with the irradiation conditions (Ahn et al.,1998).
destruction of cystine, methionine and tryptophan up to a Irradiation produced many unidentified volatiles that
dose of 71 kGy (Josephson et al., 1978). The majority of could be responsible for the off-odor in irradiated raw
amino acids in minced lean beef or pork and chicken meat. The results of an experienced testing panel showed
breast muscle are stable up to a dose of 5 kGy (Partmann that there was no significant differences in odor and taste
et al., 19790. Irradiation does not generally affect the between irradiated (4 kGy) and non-irradiated ground
o
stability of amino acids and proteins in situ. The stability beef patties (23% fat) during 7 days of storage at 4 C
to irradiation at 2 to 45 kGy of tryptophan of shrimp (Giroux et al., 2001) . Irradiation at 2.5 kGy extended the
muscle was measured after storage under different shelf life of carp, but at doses above 2.5 kGy, the cooked
temperature and moisture conditions. The results meat had an unacceptable odor and flavor. Other studies
revealed that the loss of tryptophan was small under all showed that the color of brook char (Salvelinius
the conditions applied (Antunes et al., 1977). Essential fontinalis) was affected negatively by irradiation and the
amino acids were not affected in electron- beam effect was more pronounced with 3 kGy than with 1 kGy
processed (53 kGy) haddock fillets (Lagunas, 1995). Data treatment (Paradis et al., 1996). However, the flavor of
obtained from the literature indicate that irradiation of fish was not affected by irradiation.
meat at commercial doses (2–7 kGy) has no significant There are several methods that can be employed in
effect on the nutritional value of proteins or amino acids order to decrease such detrimental effects of irradiation.
(Thayer, 1987). These include oxygen exclusion, the replacement of
oxygen with inert gases, the addition of protective agents
3.3 Effect of irradiation on vitamins such as antioxidants, and post-irradiation storage to allow
the flavor to return to near-normal levels (Brewer, 2009).
Many authors have studied the effect of irradiation on
the stability of vitamins in foods (Liu et al., 1991). No loss 3.5 Effect of irradiation on microorganisms
of riboflavin is found in pork chops and chicken breasts
irradiated at temperatures between −200°C and 200°C at A large amount of data is available on the sensitivity of
doses up to 6.6 kGy. Some irradiated samples even microorganisms to irradiation processing; this varies
exhibited an increase in riboflavin concentration of up to greatly from micro-organism to micro-organism and is
25% (Kilcast, 1994). Pork chops irradiated at different also dependent on other extrinsic factors. Vegetative cells
temperatures with doses up to 5 kGy displayed no loss in are less resistant to irradiation than spores, whereas
niacin. A loss of 15% was observed with a dose of 7 kGy moulds have a susceptibility to irradiation similar to that
when irradiation was applied at 0°C (Fox et al., 1989). of vegetative cells. However some fungi can be as
Furthermore, in the case of pantothenic acid, it has been resistant as bacterial spores (Farkas, 2006). Compared to
shown that there is no loss in many foods irradiated at bacteria, viruses generally require higher radiation doses
doses of ≥10 kGy (Thayer et al., 1991). The application of for inactivation (Crawford et al., 1996). Studies have
gamma irradiation (1, 2, and 6 kGy) on fillets of Black shown that irradiation doses of 2 and 3 kGy destroyed
Bream (Acanthopagrus australis) and Redfish Yersinia spp. and Listeria spp., respectively, with the
(Centroberyx affinis) resulted in vitamin E loss but this microorganisms being undetectable during storage of
could not be correlated with the treatment dosage. All irradiated fish (Montgomery et al., 2003). Irradiation (1, 2,
irradiated fillets were found to have vitamin E muscle and 3 kGy) significantly improved the microbiological
contents above the levels considered to be desirable for quality of the chicken by reducing the total bacterial
human consumption (Armstrong et al., 1994). No loss of count (TBC), with the decrease in TBC being dose-
vitamin B12 was observed in haddock fillets irradiated up dependent. In all the irradiated samples, no fecal
to 25 kGy. Similarly, there was no loss of niacin in cod coliforms were detected (Kanatt et al., 2005).
irradiated at 1 kGy (Murray, 1981). Irradiation of shrimps
at 2.5 kGy induced a 15% loss of riboflavin in air, 8% in 4.0 Factors affecting the efficacy of Food Irradiation
vacuum, and 20% in nitrogen (Diehl, 1995).
The efficacy of ionising radiation for micro-organism
3.4 Effect of irradiation on organoleptic characteristics inactivation depends mainly on the dose of use and the
level of resistance of the contaminating organisms.
Textural alterations and development of off-flavors are Radiation resistance varies widely among different
not considered a problem with irradiation at doses lower species of bacteria, yeast and moulds. Bacterial spores
than 2 kGy. Any sensory changes at lower radiation doses are general more resistant than vegetables cells, which is
239 | Int. J. of Multidisciplinary and Current research, Nov/Dec 2013
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