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2C2 Multivariate Calculus
Michael D. Alder
November 13, 2002
2
Contents
1 Introduction 5
2 Optimisation 7
2.1 The Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Constrained Optimisation 15
3.1 Lagrangian Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4 Fields and Forms 23
4.1 Definitions Galore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Integrating 1-forms (vector fields) over curves. . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3 Independence of Parametrisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Conservative Fields/Exact Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.5 Closed Loops and Conservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5 Green’s Theorem 47
5.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1.1 Functions as transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1.2 Change of Variables in Integration . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.1.3 Spin Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2 Green’s Theorem (Classical Version) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
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4 CONTENTS
5.3 Spin fields and Differential 2-forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3.1 The Exterior Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.3.2 For the Pure Mathematicians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3.3 Return to the (relatively) mundane. . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.4 More on Differential Stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.5 Green’s Theorem Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6 Stokes’ Theorem (Classical and Modern) 97
6.1 Classical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2 Modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.3 Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7 Fourier Theory 123
7.1 Various Kinds of Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.2 Function Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.4 Fiddly Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.5 Odd and Even Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.6 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.7 Differentiation and Integration of Fourier Series . . . . . . . . 150
7.8 Functions of several variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8 Partial Differential Equations 155
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.2 The Diffusion Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.2.1 Intuitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.2.2 Saying it in Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.3 Laplace’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
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