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Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry
Vol. 22, No 2, (2022), pp. 209-235
Open Access. Online & Print.
www.maajournal.com
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6815469
SOLAR GEOMETRY AND THE ORGANIZATION
OF THE ANNUAL CYCLE THROUGH ARCHITECTURE
AND THE FUNERARY LANDSCAPE
IN QUBBET EL HAWA
1 2 3
Joyanes-Díaz MaríaD , Martínez-De Dios JuanL , Mozas-Calvache Antonio ,
4 5 6
Ruíz-Jaramillo Jonathan , Muñoz-González Carmen , Jiménez-Serrano Alejandro
1Department of Art & Architecture, Architectural Graphic Expression, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain
2Qubbet el -Hawa Project, University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain
3Department of Cartographic, Geodetic and Photogrammetric Engineering, University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain
4,5
Department of Art & Architecture, Architectural Constructions, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain
6Department of Anthropology, Geography and History, University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain
Received: 08/06/2022
Accepted: 22/07/2022 *Corresponding author: Joyanes-Díaz María D (lolajoyanes@uma.es)
ABSTRACT
The longitudinal axes of the Middle Kingdom tombs excavated in the necropolis of Qubbet el-Hawa were
precisely oriented to the summer and winter solstices. Located on the western side of the Nile, opposite
Elephantine Island, the architectural design of these tombs differed greatly from that of the Old Kingdom with
elongated spaces around these axes in relation to the solar cycle. As architecture, was excavated from the
landscape itself, the presence of the sun was decisive in letting light in through the single doorway, which
acted as a transitional threshold to project the sunlight indoors.
Funerary complex No.33 followed the longitudinal direction of the intersolstice axis. This important
architectural construction of the necropolis reflects the evolution of a typical Upper Egyptian funerary model
during the Middle Kingdom. Analysis of the illumination of the architectural space throughout the year
confirms that the continuous movement of the sun during its cycle can be observed inside. The starting point
of this analysis, is these spatial results, aiming to find an explanation for the geometric composition and
specific design of the different architectural elements which make this a rounded, beautiful and harmonious
complex. The QH33 funerary complex was built following very specific planning, which reworked and refined
a model of a community which aimed to connect the celestial geometry to the geographical landscape through
this architecture.
KEYWORDS: Egyptian architecture, archaeology, landscape, solar geometry, calendar, Middle Kingdom, ne-
cropolis, illumination, solstice, tombs, sunlight, elephantine, sanctuary
Copyright: © 2022. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License.
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
210 JOYANES DIAZ MARIA D et al
1. INTRODUCTION funerary complexes and rock-cut tombs which have
Elephantine, the capital city of the southernmost been found, dates from the reign of Amenemhat III
province of Upper Egypt until the Roman period, was (1818-1773 BC) (Edel, 2008).It part of a set of tombs
located on the largest island north of the First (QH30, QH31, QH32, QH33, QH34, QH34aa, QH34bb
Cataract. On the western shore, high ranking officials and QH34ee) (Fig. 01b) built between the reigns of
and members of the Elephantine elite chose the east- Amenemhat II and Amenemhat IV (1878-1764 BC)
facing hill of Qubbet el-Hawa as a burial ground (Jiménez & García 2017; Martínez et al, 2018). During
during the Sixth and Twelfth Dynasties (2305-1760 this period, a succession of governors of the province,
BC) (Hornung, 2006). QH33 is one of the most belonged to the same lineage that had begun during
remarkable of the approximately, one hundred the reign of Senwosret I (1920-1875 BC) (Franke,
1994).
Figure 1(a) 1(b). Geographical location of the necropolis of Qubbet el-Hawa, Aswan (Egypt) (a) and location of funerary
complex QH33 with longitudinal axis perpendicular to the Nile bed (b).
Since 2008, the University of Jaén has carried out a construction was occupied from the end of the reign
multidisciplinary excavation and study of these of Senwosret III (1837-1819) and during the first years
funerary monuments. Between 2008 and 2018, these of the reign of Amenemhat III. It has also been found
focused on tomb QH33, discovered by Budge in 1885, that two governors were buried in QH33, probably in
although not excavated (Budge, 1887) and first succession. Only the name of Heqaib III (Sánchez &
described in 1960 (Edel, 2008). Despite careful Jiménez, 2015) has been confirmed, buried in honor of
excavation of the entire funerary complex, it has not the builder of the funerary complex, who was
been possible to determine the name of the governor probably his half-brother Heqaib-ankh.
who originally built, since the main burial chamber The QH33 funerary complex basically reproduces
was looted in ancient times and the remains of the the architectural structure of other Twelfth Dynasty
burial goods were destroyed. However, the analysis (Jiménez & García, 2017) complexes incorporating in
of the material culture of the funerary complex of areas of worship, shafts and burial chambers. In
QH33 (Jiménez et al., 2012; Jiménez, 2016; Martínez & QH33 the worship area is made up of: a forecourt
De La Torre, 2018) has established that the with stepped structures at the north and south ends;
Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 22, No 2, (2022), pp. 209-235
SOLAR GEOMETRY AND ARCHITECTURE IN A FUNERARY LANDSCAPE 211
a large courtyard delimited by a large perimeter wall; highlighted the importance of orientation as an
a large door cut out of the monumental façade; a essential geometrical part of planning a construction,
chapel with pillars and a niche for the statue of the especially excavated ones. Thus, while all the burial
governor, where the main rituals for the deceased sites in the necropolis were east-facing, the direction
would have been performed (Jiménez, 2015). The of the axis of QH33 was adjusted precisely in relation
chapel, designed to house the statue of the deceased, to the adjoining burial sites, QH32 and QH31.
was the center of the monument and at the far end of 2. OBJECTIVES
the longitudinal axis that began at the door. On the
other walls of the chapel, other burial chambers were The Middle Kingdom was a time of splendor for
arranged to be occupied by persons close to the Egyptian culture, as seen from the impact of high
governor (Jiménez & Forstner, 2020). The governor´s quality architecture as a form of expression. Con-
body was deposited in a burial chamber preceded by structions were perfected, while their orientation and
an anteroom, located at the bottom of a shaft 11.5- architectural composition reflected an extensive
meter deep, and sealed with rubble. Later, a second knowledge of the solar cycle and derived geometry.
niche with a 5-meter deep shaft, was built with two The sanctuary niche of QH33 was constantly lit all
burial chambers destined for Heqaib-ankh's year as the design focused on the longitudinal section,
stepbrother and successor, Governor Heqaib III, , and following the lines of the triangle of shadows. The
Lady Gaut-Anuket (Jiménez, 2015). carved space was permanently lit by the sun, empha-
The QH33 complex, latitude 24º06’ N and sizing its sacred status. Once the axis of symmetry
longitude 32º 53’E, is built 135.00 meters above sea had been oriented and the orthogonal outer limits es-
level (45.00 m above river level). The main axis of the tablished, the construction was measured and delim-
funeral structure is oriented toward the Nile River, ited on the upper stratum or horizontal plane.
perpendicular to the maximum slope, with a clear Removing rock down from the top, all the
view to the east, on the low slopes of the valley. The progressively excavated horizontal layers could be
1
necropolis, at latitude 24º10' , is oriented toward the seen, showing how the opening for a point of light
east with a major solar incidence throughout the played a key role in the creating space. Considering
2
year , and coincides with one of the extreme points of QH33 as the materialization of a multifactorial
the suns´s cycle, the summer solstice and the rising of process (geographical, astronomical, religious and
the star Sothis. These events occurring together were social) integrated into a landscape with a powerful
essential to establishing the first day of the Civil Year, symbolic load, the following objectives are proposed:
with the overflowing of the Nile. After a period of • To demonstrate that the design and construction
invisibility, the star was very close to the horizon just of the QH33 complex is the result of the evolu-
3 4
before sunrise . This conincidence was clearly visible tion of a well-thought-out model for geometrical
from Elephantine and eventually this star was translation of the solar cycle. This makes use of a
connected to one of the main deities of the ancient selection of positions and orientations combined
5
city, Satet . In Elephantine, the sun, at its maximum with a specific composition of architectural ele-
declination during the summer solstice almost ments to provide a medium for the associated rit-
reached the vertical axis when it cast barely any ual.
shadow on the horizontal plane. During the winter, it • To use drawings and images based on precise
displayed an almost homogenous slope of close to topographic measurements for the geometric
43º, increasing progressively until day without a and constructive analysis of the funeral complex.
shadow (Isler, 2001; Kelley, 2011). This day heralded • To propose a specific research methodology for
the Flood, when the sun vertically traced an almost Architecture in Archeology contained in a land-
infinite slope in relation to the gnomon, a scape, linking horizontal-temporal strata with
phenomenon known as zenith pass (Isler, 2001). vertical planes, in order to decode it as a lan-
Although all burial sites built at Qubbet el-Hawa guage closely linked to the functionality of the
since the Old Kingdom between the middle of the building.
Sixth Dynasty and the end of the Twelfth Dynasty 3. METHODOLOGY
were essentially oriented to the east, the orientation of
QH33 replicated the example of the early temple of The building in question is the space out of the hill,
the goddess Satet on the island of Elephantine (Wells, with a specific geographical location and orientation
1985), aligned at dawn of the winter solstice, far south linking it to the solar cycle. The presence of light in
of the sunrise on the horizon. This orientation process architecture, especially excavated architecture, was
began with the ceremony of the stretching of the cord essential to the functionality of the building, and to its
(Arnold, 1991), used for all major constructions since conception and construction processes. Thus, lighting
the First Dynasty at least (Toby, 2000). This procedure
Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 22, No 2, (2022), pp. 209-235
212 JOYANES DIAZ MARIA D et al
is the key starting point to analyze the space of QH33, sunrise of the winter solstice (116º), and of the star So-
which has a single entrance of natural light whose in- this (110º-115º). The ephemeris shown below (Table 2)
ner distribution is controlled, as the discussion will was obtained from two sources with different algo-
show. Following the sunrise line of the winter solstice rithmic systems, the Horizons platform of the NASA
and the sunset line of the summer solstice both loca- Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA, 2020) and the Solar
tion and orientation serve as starting points, showing Position Algorithm (SPA) of the National Renewable
how QH33 considers celestial geometry and the geo- Energy Laboratory (NREL) (NREL 2020).
graphical landscape, with an axis that is perfectly per- Both systems precisely determine the azimuth and
pendicular to the bed of the Nile at that point (Fig.01). solar elevation for the year in question, although mi-
A total station was used at different points of the nor discrepancies were detected between both meas-
QH33 set for geometric definition obtaining values of urements. Thus, for each day of the solar year, the az-
115.24º and 28.26º for the alignment of the main lon- imuth and elevation angles corresponding to the geo-
gitudinal axis and of the façade plane respectively graphical position selected for the QH33 set were ob-
(Table 1). The 3D model (Fig. 02) of the exterior and tained at thirty-minute intervals. The graph (Table 2)
interior assembly was created using photogrammetry shows the solar orientations for different elevations of
techniques combined with Terrestrial Laser Scanning sunrise and sunset on the days of the solstice and
(TLS) to be used as reference with a global system equinox. The different elevations correspond to 0º, -6º,
(WGS84). An angle of approximately 87º was meas- civil twilight, and -0.83º, considering the atmospheric
ured between the longitudinal axis and the plane of refraction in the apparent position of the sun. We also
the façade, representing a subtle deviation between analyzed the spatial lighting results obtained with the
the orientation of the excavated space and the plane software (DIALux evo 8.1), allowing us to trace the
of the façade, which this text aims to explain. All the path of the sun inside QH33, throughout its complete
measurements included were obtained employing an cycle. It was verified that the sunrise during the win-
external topographic network, with a precision above ter solstice, the maximum solar declination, occurred
50´´.The coordinates of this network were obtained on January 5, 1825 BC, considering parameters such
using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) as the diameter of the solar disk and atmospheric re-
technology, referenced and the WGS84 system. The fraction (-0.83º). This practically coincided with the
different orientations were corrected for the true orientation of the longitudinal axis of the hypogeum,
north deviation caused by the projection used, due to for the apparent sunrise of the winter solstice, with a
the convergence of the meridians. Table 1 indicates minimum difference of 0.74º. Considering the exact
the main orientations of the QH31, QH32 and QH33 orientation of the axis of QH33, the sun was elevated
complexes, which share the same terrace for horizon- at -2.3º above the horizon during the winter solstice,
tal access. To check the interaction of the sun with within civil twilight and very close to the apparent
QH33, the coordinates of the sun's position (azimuth sunrise. The small variation in the orientation of the
and elevation) were calculated in relation to the year line perpendicular to the façade plane (118º 26´) could
1825 BC, as the approximate date of the beginning of refer to the search for the helical rising of the star So-
the excavation work (Mozas et al., 2020), based on the this, coinciding with the orientation of the Elephan-
oldest material culture (mainly ceramic) found in the tine temple, consecrated to the goddess Satet (Wells,
QH33 complex. This bears in mind, the direction of 1985).
the longitudinal axis of space (115.24º), the axis of the
Table 1. Angular orientations (azimuths) obtained in tombs QH31, QH32 and QH33.
AZIMUTH FAÇADE AZIMUTH MAIN AXIS AZIMUTH DIFFERENCE
QH 31 33.48º 122.57º 89.09º
QH 32 33.48º 123.79º 90.31º
QH 33 28.26º 115.24º 86.99º
Table 2. Azimuths during sunrise and sunset on QH33 in 1825 BC (Source: NASA solar ephemeris, 2020).
AZIMUTH ORTHO AZIMUTH SUNSET
SUN ELEVATION
date 0º -0.83º -6º 0º -0.83º -6º
winter solstice WS 05 JAN 116.41 115.99 113.58 243.60 244.01 246.43
spring equinox EQX 06 APR 90.28 89.91 87.60 269.93 270.30 272.64
summer solstice SS 09 JUL 63.63 63.19 60.42 296.36 296.79 299.57
spring equinox EQX 08 OCT 90.05 89.63 87.34 269.72 270.09 272.42
Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 22, No 2, (2022), pp. 209-235
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