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     View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk                                                                                                                                brought to you by    CORE
                                                                                                                                                                         provided by Universidade do Minho: RepositoriUM
                                                    2                                                A. Rui Gomes  
                                                           
                                                           
                                                           
                                                           
                                                           
                                                           
                                                    Chapter  
                                                           
                                                           
                                                           
                                                               TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP: 
                                                         THEORY, RESEARCH, AND APPLICATION  
                                                                                                 TO SPORTS 
                                                           
                                                           
                                                                                                                              *
                                                                                                 A. Rui Gomes  
                                                                     University of Minho, School of Psychology. Portugal 
                                                           
                                                           
                                                                                                     ABSTRACT 
                                                           
                                                          Analyzing the influence of coaches on athlete performance and on the 
                                                          psychological           experiences  of  team  members  (e.g.,  motivation, 
                                                          satisfaction,  and  cohesion)  is  a  fascinating  endeavor.  Thus,  it  is  not 
                                                          surprising  that  several  authors  have  dedicated  considerable  effort  to 
                                                          studying  coaches’  mental  representations  and  actions  being  proposed 
                                                          important conceptual models (Chelladurai, 1993; Côté, Salmela, Trudel, 
                                                          Baria, & Russell, 1995; Smoll & Smith, 1989; Jowett, 2007). 
                                                          Despite the unequivocal interest in these proposals, insufficient attention 
                                                          has  been  given  to  recent  developments  in  leadership  research,  namely 
                                                          charismatic  and  transformational  leadership  (Bass,  1985;  Burns, 1978; 
                                                          Conger  &  Kanungo,  1987;  House,  1977).  Therefore,  analyzing  the 
                                                          application  of  transformational  leadership  in  sports  contexts  becomes 
                                                          important. 
                                                                                                                  
                                                    *
                                                     Corresponding author: A. Rui Gomes, Universidade do Minho, Escola de Psicologia, Campus 
                                                          de  Gualtar,  4710-057  Braga,  Portugal,  Tel.  +253.604.232,  Fax:  +253.604.224,  Email: 
                                                          rgomes@psi.uminho.pt. 
                                                             Transformational Leadership                             3
                                        Taking this need into consideration, this chapter aims to: (a) review the 
                                        theoretical    proposals     and     research    conducted      regarding 
                                        charismatic/transformational   leadership   in   several   organizational 
                                        contexts; (b) review  the research  conducted regarding  transformational 
                                        leadership in sports; and (c) propose conceptual, empirical, and practical 
                                        guidelines concerning the application  of transformational  leadership in 
                                        sports. 
                                         
                                         
                                                                 INTRODUCTION 
                                         
                                        According  to  Dwight  Eisenhower,  President  of  the  United  States, 
                                   “leadership is the ability to decide what is to be done, and then go get others to 
                                   want to do it” (Larson, 1968, p. 21). Accordingly, for Harry S. Truman also 
                                   President of the United States (1958, p. 139), “a leader is a man who has the 
                                   ability to  get  other  people to  do what  they  don’t  want  to  do,  and like it”. 
                                   Likewise, some authors have identified the instrumental side of leadership, 
                                   meaning  that  this  phenomenon  should  be  understood  as  a  process  of 
                                   influencing others to achieve certain goals (Bartol & Martin, 1994; Zaleznik, 
                                   1989).  However,  there  is  no  mention  of  the  values,  ethics,  morals,  or 
                                   “goodness” involved in leadership in these definitions (Drouillard & Kleiner, 
                                   1996), and somehow they suggest that leaders use manipulative or persuasive 
                                   strategies  to accomplish certain objectives. Thus, these definitions  may not 
                                   overcome other forms of using the power of leadership. For example, recent 
                                   leadership  movements  have  proposed  that  power  depends  on  a  leader’s 
                                   capacity to create positive and challenging visions of an organization’s future 
                                   and articulate ways for followers to accomplish this vision (Bass, 1990; Bennis 
                                   & Nanus, 1985; Burns, 1978; Tichy & Devanna, 1986). 
                                        Despite these differences, all leadership definitions emphasize the primary 
                                   characteristic  of  leadership:  influencing  others.  This  chapter  analyzes  one 
                                   conceptual approach that explains the processes of influence between leaders 
                                   and followers: transformational leadership. 
                                        The potential impact that transformational leaders have on their contexts, 
                                   by introducing substantial changes to their social and work environments, as 
                                   well as on the values and behaviors of their followers justifies this interest. In 
                                   fact,  in  the  world  of  open  markets  in  which  organizations  must  deal  with 
                                   aggressive  competitors  and  increase  the  quality  of  their  performance  with 
                                   fewer  resources,  leaders  play  an  important  role  in  helping  individuals  and 
                                   organizations  prosper  or  simply  survive.  As  it  will  be  presented, 
                                   transformational leaders have been demonstrating their efficacy in a broad set 
              4            A. Rui Gomes  
              of  contexts,  leading  their  followers,  groups,  and  organizations  to  perform 
              beyond what would be expected without them. 
               Thus, this chapter analyzes the importance of transformational leadership 
              in sports, examining whether this construct can help understand the leadership 
              styles applied by the different individuals involved in sports, with particular 
              attention paid to the leadership of coaches. More specifically, the following 
              questions  directed  the  analyses:  does  transformational  leadership  apply  to 
              sports? What is the current state of research on this subject in sports? What 
              should be overcome in future research? To best respond to these questions, it 
              is  necessary  to  explain  why  this  “new”  leadership  movement  emerged and 
              what are its primary theoretical and empirical  contributions to the study of 
              leadership.  To  accomplish  these  goals,  this  chapter  is  divided  into  five 
              sections. 
               The  first  section  describes  conceptual  approaches  to  the  study  of 
              leadership. The main goal of this section is to provide an historical perspective 
              of  the  theoretical  frameworks  of  the  study  of  leadership.  Furthermore,  it 
              explains when and why the study of transformational leadership became useful 
              and  important  to  the  social  sciences,  being  also  explained  the  concept  of 
              charismatic leadership because it is historically related with transformational 
              leadership. 
               The second section  presents  the  theoretical  models  of  charismatic  and 
              transformational leadership. In addition, it defines the primary constructs and 
              characteristics of these leadership types. As in the first section, the major goal 
              of  this  section  is  to  provide  an  historical  perspective  of  the  conceptual 
              approaches to the study of charismatic and transformational leadership. 
               The third section analyzes the impact of transformational leaders. Its goal 
              is to demonstrate the changes introduced by transformational leaders and to 
              observe the impact of these changes on followers and organizations. Thus, 
              some  important  questions  are  answered  in  this  section:  why  study 
              transformational leaders? What is learned from this leadership approach? 
               The  fourth  section  introduces  the  study  of  transformational  leadership 
              with  regard  to  sports.  Considering  the  empirical  research  on  the  effects  of 
              transformational  leaders  addressed  by  the  previous  section,  this  section 
              attempts  to  answer  the  following  questions:  is  there  value  in  analyzing 
              transformational  leadership  in  sports?  If  so,  what  are  the  findings  of  this 
              research? 
               The  fifth  and  final  part  of  the  chapter  highlights  the  potential  for 
              transformational leadership research in sports. Its goal is to identify what must 
                                                        Transformational Leadership                       5
                                be better understood about transformational leadership and the advantages of 
                                this approach in a sports context. 
                                     
                                     
                                               LEADERSHIP STUDY APPROACHES 
                                     
                                    Leadership is a complex and fascinating topic. Researchers have dedicated 
                                significant effort to study the so-called leadership triangle, which involves a 
                                leader, the followers, and the environment where this leadership occurs. Over 
                                the  years, different approaches have emerged to explain each aspect of this 
                                triangle as well as the complex interaction among them. 
                                    Early approaches to the study of leadership emphasized the characteristics 
                                (or  traits)  of  the  leader.  For  example,  in  his  well-known  book  Hereditary 
                                Genius,  Sir  Francis  Galton  (1869)  proposed  that  leadership  is  a  property 
                                unique to extraordinary individuals who take actions to change the course of 
                                history.  Similarly,  the  famous  psychologist  William  James  (1880)  admitted 
                                that major societal changes result from the actions of great individuals who 
                                lead others in directions they believe to be important. 
                                    This  vision  of  leadership  influenced  researchers  to  analyze  leader 
                                characteristics  at  different  levels  (e.g.,  intellectually,  psychologically,  and 
                                physically), and the study of these attributes dominated the field until the late 
                                1940s and early 1950s (Zaccaro, 2007). This movement has become known as 
                                the  heroic  conception  of  leadership,  which  resulted  in  the  “greatman” 
                                leadership theory  (Vroom & Jago, 2007). This  conception of  leadership is 
                                attractive because psychological tests might be used to discover the important 
                                psychological  traits  of  effective  leaders,  and  even  more  enthusiastically, 
                                society  would be  able to  place  these  individuals  in  leadership  positions  to 
                                achieve the best results for all of us. 
                                    However,  important  reviews  regarding  leadership  traits  concluded  that 
                                leadership  personality  features  differ  significantly  across  studies,  being 
                                difficult  to  define  a  set  of  characteristics  that  explains  leadership  efficacy 
                                (Mann, 1959; Stodgill, 1948). For example, Stodgill (1948) reviewed 30 years 
                                of trait studies and concluded that only a few traits (most notably intelligence) 
                                were associated (approximately 35% of the time) with differences between 
                                leaders  and  followers.  However,  the  most disappointing  result  was that  no 
                                variable  or  cluster  of  variables  was  related  to  effective  leadership  across 
                                situations. Thus, Stodgill (1948) concluded that finding a single personality 
                                trait  that  predicted  effective  leadership  was  unlikely  because  “an  adequate 
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...View metadata citation and similar papers at core ac uk brought to you by provided universidade do minho repositorium a rui gomes chapter transformational leadership theory research application sports university of school psychology portugal abstract analyzing the influence coaches on athlete performance psychological experiences team members e g motivation satisfaction cohesion is fascinating endeavor thus it not surprising that several authors have dedicated considerable effort studying mental representations actions being proposed important conceptual models chelladurai cote salmela trudel baria russell smoll smith jowett despite unequivocal interest in these proposals insufficient attention has been given recent developments namely charismatic bass burns conger kanungo house therefore contexts becomes corresponding author escola de psicologia campus gualtar braga tel fax email rgomes psi uminho pt taking this need into consideration aims review theoretical conducted regarding organ...

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