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Functional Ecosystems and Communities ©2008 Global Science Books

Non-Timber Forest Products: An Overview

Gustavo Taboada Soldati Ulysses Paulino de Albuquerque*

Laboratório de Etnobotânica Aplicada, Departamento de Biologia, Área de Botânica, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco,
Av. Dom Manoel de Medeiros s/n, Dois Irmãos. CEP: 52171-900. Recife-PE, Brazil
Corresponding author: * upa@db.ufrpe.br

ABSTRACT
This article will present an overview of different approaches related to the use of non-timber forest products (NTFP), focusing on the
ecological and social domain of their exploitation. We also discuss the role of ethnobotany in the study of these resources.
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Keywords: biodiversity conservation, plant extractivism, plant population, rural development

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
THE CONCEPTS......................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
IMPORTANCE OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS (NTFP).......................................................................................................... 22
ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF NTFP USE................................................................................................................................... 24
METHODOLOGIES USED IN THE STUDIES OF NTFP USE............................................................................................................. 24
Direct evaluations.................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Indirect evaluations ................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF NTFP EXTRACTION................................................................................................................................ 28
CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS LINKED TO NTFP USE.......................................................................................................... 28
THE ROLE OF ETHNOBOTANY.............................................................................................................................................................. 29
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS....................................................................................................................................................................... 30
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................................................................................... 30
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
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INTRODUCTION has become almost commonplace, and special attention has
been given to a special group of resources known as NTFP.
This paper is not intend to be an in-depth theoretical and This attention has arisen due to special characteristics of
conceptual revision because it would be almost impossible this set of plants, such as their high monetary return by unit
to fully cover the debates related to the ecological, social, of area, the promotion of local development, and the poten-
and economic spheres of the processes linked to the use of tial conservation of biological richness (see, for example,
Non-timber Forest Products. In addition, there are articles Ticktin 2004). Consequently, for some authors, the use of
which are already available on this topic. These articles, NTFP is one of the present-day conservation paradigms,
such as by Ticktin (2004), Shaanker et al. (2004), and Neu- especially because its exploitation is very similar to the pro-
mman and Hirsh (2000) already expose some of these as- posals that seek to attain sustainable development (see
pects. Here we intend to discuss the Non-Timber Forest Ticktin 2004). However, in this article, we wish to put into
Products (NTFP) concept, the research methods and the perspective the idea that automatically associates NTFP
ecological implications of the different biological organi- with conservation and sustainability.
zational realms (the individual, population, and the com-
munity), as well as some of the social aspects of their use. THE CONCEPTS
We also propose to explain the importance of studies re-
lated to NTFP use that are not solely sustained by the con- Non-timber forest products (NTFP) is a highly dissemi-
servationist discourse. We also want to debate how ethno- nated term internationally and was initially used for a wide
botany can contribute to these investigations. Finally, we variety of differentiated forest products (Fig. 1). Presently,
will present a definition of the term Non-Timber Forest NTFP are defined as plant or animal products that exclude
Products that encompasses all of the issues explained here. wood (for different purposes) or firewood coming from
In our proposal, ethnobotany arises as an approach that can natural or managed plant formations. In a way, it can be
connect several of the domains related to NTFP (the ecolo- said that the concept of NTFP was coined in order to group
gical, cultural, and economic domains). this set of resources that are supposedly not well-known
In this sense, an important aspect of people-plant inter- ecologically, and to value the environmental products or
relations that has been covered in recent ethnobotanical in- services offered by tropical forest formations as an alter-
vestigations is related to the use of plant resources. Since native to using wood or firewood (Vantomme 2001). Other
the over-exploitation of species is seen as one of the great- terms are also used, yet they are not as clear and they are
est causes of biodiversity loss, the number of studies on this applied in a variety of situations often permeated with
theme is growing. Thus, discourse regarding conservation value judgments such as: smaller products, special

Received: 4 August, 2008. Accepted: 7 October, 2008. Invited Review
Functional Ecosystems and Communities 2 (Special Issue 1), 21-31 ©2008 Global Science Books
Fig. 1 Some key elements and their definitions associated with the concept of Non-Timber Forest Products.
products, and secondary forest products (Vantomme tions of forest formations, which excludes products from
2001). highly modified landscapes such as pastures and plantations.
Due to the high diversity and complexity of the NTFP Their argument is that the latter cases already fit into dom-
and their definition, for Neumman and Hirsh (2000), they estication processes. Thus, this idea associates the notion of
are inexact and disturbing, as they are determined not by wildness with the concept of NTFP (see Diegues 2000),
what they are, but by what they are not. Walter (1998) which, in our view, is limiting.
states that the definition used depends on the question Two other issues that deserve to be considered are the
that needs to be answered. However, regardless of the term resources origin solely from the forest formations, and the
used, its scope and range should be elucidated very well. duality between the so-called natural and managed
(Vantomme 2001). NTFP are characterized by their econo- ecosystems. We prefer, in principle, to adopt Vantommes
mic versatility, the variation in their final usage, the differ- (2001) definition because of its greater ability to encompass
ences among the production basis, and resource richness different ideas without identity loss. His definition is: any
(Santos et al. 2003). Some examples of NTFP are cashews, biological material (other than wood itself for industrial
almonds, nuts, fruit, herbs, spices, colorings, oils, resins, use and sawed wood by-products such as signs and panels)
fibers, barks, and aromatic, medicinal, and ornamental that can be extracted from natural ecosystems, managed
plants. plantations, etc., and that are used for subsistence or com-
For Neumman and Hirsh (2000), in addition to the in- mercialization, or that have some type of social, cultural, or
herent diversification idea, NTFP stand out due to the sup- religious value. We also consider environmental services
position that the forest that is the source of the products will as NTFP, even though they are not recognized as such in
remain structured, and more or less unharmed. Thus, there many studies (Walter 1998).
is a widespread argument that comes with the NTFP con-
cept: that their use is easier to manage and has less impact IMPORTANCE OF NON-TIMBER FOREST
on plant communities than traditional forest exploitation PRODUCTS (NTFP)
(Ticktin 2004). Nevertheless, Peters (1994) argues that this
statement is superficial and dangerous, and that there is no Almost all arguments that emphasize the importance of the
fixed, direct relationship between NTFP use and the sus- use of NTFP are related to the biodiversity conservation
tainability of the plant extraction. discourse and/or to some proposal regarding sustainable de-
In addition to this practical conflict, there are some con- velopment. This might be the result of the present global
ceptual impasses to defining NTFP. Some authors, for scenario, in which a biological crisis related to biodiversity
example, do not recognize exotic plants as non-timber for- loss is widely discussed in most domains (Layragues 1998).
est products because they believe that these are elements The main argument is that NTFP perfectly fulfill pro-
that are external to the system, meaning that they were not posals that integrate the conservation of biological richness
part of the original forest formation (Castellani 2002). Villa- and local development, especially in poor communities. The
lobos and Ocampo (1997) point out that an strong charac- supposition is that communities and their members will
teristic of the NTFP is their collection from wild popula- conserve and protect forests and forest services if they re-
22
Non-timber forest products. Soldati and Albuquerque
Fig. 2 The importance of using Non-Timber Forest Products.
ceive some sort of economic return (Lawrence et al. 1995; more valuable than the primary forests. Since the argument
Neumman and Hirsh 2000). Some authors believe that im- for extractivist reserves is based on economic incentives for
mediatism is one of the most important reasons for devas- preservation, there are no incentives for the conservation of
tation (Castellani 2002), and that the economic return from primary physiognomies. Lastly, there is a lot of pressure to
sustainable exploitation is the only alternative, or the only convert forests into managed zones. This shows that, in the
incentive capable of making local communities feel the tropics, the relationship between local communities and
need to conserve forest formations (Kremen et al. 1998; protected areas is uncertain (Lawrence et al. 1995).
Ndangalasia et al. 2007). Another common argument is that Studies related to NTFP are not only justified by a con-
the profitability of NTFP exploitation practices by unit of servationist perspective (Fig. 2). The wild plants collected
area is greater in the long-run than deforesting these areas are the sources of medicine, food, fodder, and even econo-
or converting them into pastures or areas of cultivation mic incomes, especially for the poorest populations. NTFP
(Neumman and Hirsh 2000). Nevertheless, it is important to significantly contribute to the maintenance and autonomy of
take into consideration that the use of NTFP can be highly local populations throughout the world (Godoy and Bawa
unsustainable if unorganized collection prevails and people 1993; Santos et al. 2003). According to Ndangalasia et al.
do not respect the resources ecology. The importance of a (2007), most products that sustain the daily activities of
resource for a community with or without economic in- these communities are NTFP. In-depth studies about the
centives is not an absolute guarantee for protection and/or role of NTFP in constructing the autonomy of local com-
conservation of the forests resources. The local value sys- munities food and medical autonomy, for example are
tems, knowledge, and beliefs that are associated with these essential in order to designate strategies and public policies
resources must also be considered. for local development.
Based on the high rate of deforestation in the tropics Nevertheless, in some social realities, most of this
and the need for solutions that integrate conservation and knowledge which guarantees a certain autonomy to social
local development, many conservationists present extracti- groups and contributes to the construction of cultural iden-
vist reserves (Pinedo-Vasquez et al. 1990) and integrated tity is threatened due to contact with the dominant oc-
conservation and development programs (Kremen et al. cidental society (Diegues 2002). For example, Estomba et
1998) as ways to reconcile forest use and preservation. al. (2006) document that the traditional knowledge of the
However, Lawrence et al. (1995), while evaluating the pos- Mapuche from Argentina, which is strongly rooted in their
sibility of installing extractivist reserves based on local culture, is threatened because of complications in the trans-
NTFP exploration patterns, concluded that these alterna- mission of knowledge to future generations. Soldati (2005)
tives are not viable. These authors found that the managed recorded that the destruction of some traditional values, in
areas that are the source of NTFP allow for a greater quan- this case pressured by environmental legislation, negatively
tity of collected resources, and that despite their impor- affects the transmission of knowledge to future generations.
tance for local subsistence resources that come from pri- In
this sense, studies about the use of NTFP by local com-
mary formations are not sold. In other words, the central munities are justified but also by the argument of biodiver-
problem is that the managed forests and buffer zones are sity conservation. Thus, these investigations are important
23
Functional Ecosystems and Communities 2 (Special Issue 1), 21-31 ©2008 Global Science Books
from an ethical standpoint that recognizes the role of the validating these processes.
NTFP and respects and legitimizes the way of life of these Rigorous evaluations of the sustainability of extractivist
societies. practices depend on the communitys floristic composition
In some social realities, the non-timber forest products (Peters 1994), the knowledge of the resources ecological
are fundamental in more specific cultural processes, such as characteristics (such as life history, reproduction rate, rec-
identity construction, the strengthening of social memory, ruitment, growth, density, and production) (Lawrence et al.
food, and spiritual practices (Fig. 2). In these situations, the 1995), and on external characteristics such as the utilization
NTFP carry out such important roles in the cohesion and risk, nature, and intensity of harvesting (Peters 1994; Dze-
maintenance of certain societies throughout the world that refos and Witkowski 2001). Gaoue and Ticktin (2007) state
their absence would strongly modify the groups charac- that other characteristics, such as the multiple use of species
teristics and cultural resilience (Garibaldi and Turner and space and time variations, can also influence collection
2004; Albuquerque and Oliveira 2007). Without any doubt, patterns and their impacts. This is especially important in
this is the case of the jurema plant (Mimosa tenuiflora contexts with anthropic or natural disturbances, such as fire
(Willd.) Poir.) for some indigenous groups of the Brazilian and tree plantations. For example, from a cultural and eco-
northeast (Souza et al. 2008). nomic point of view, NTFP from the caatinga (plant eco-
The Atikum-Umã is an example of the above mentioned. system of the NE Brazil) are very valuable to the communi-
They are one of the seven indigenous ethnicities legally re- ties that inhabit this region (Araújo et al. 2007). So have
cognized in the state of Pernambuco (NE Brazil), which has noticed that the NTFP of this region have multiple uses and
some of the cultural traits that are highly connected to the include a very diverse number of extractivist options (tim-
use of local plants, such as the jurema. According to Grüne- ber or non-timber) and collection events (see Lucena et al.
wald (2004), the jurema, which is used in secret rituals, is 2007a, 2007b; Albuquerque and Oliveira 2007; Lucena et al.
one of the traditions of the Atikum. It is a distinctive mark 2008).
in relation to the dominant society. The jurema is sung in Thus, as Gaoue and Ticktin (2007) argue, there is a
verses that strengthen the groups identity and is still used need to understand as much as possible about local collec-
to explain the differences in phenotype inside the group. tion patterns and what variables influence extraction beha-
Three types are recognized: black jurema, red jurema vior (or foraging, in ecological terms). Oliveira et al. (2007)
and white jurema. In addition to the toré (a sacred dance), note that the medicinal plants explored by the rural com-
all of these characteristics (which are essentially related to munity are also used for other purposes. The plant species
the use of a NTFP) are seen as diacritical signs to establish multiple uses are widespread, yet a limited approach could
the Atikum ethnicity. This became a political instrument to uncharacterize the total impacts, since they can be much
guarantee access to a basic resource land and has pro- greater when combined with the extraction events (Gaoue
moted this indigenous groups perpetuation. and Ticktin 2007).
Based on the understanding of the different roles that However, some inherent characteristics of plant com-
the NTFP carry out for social groups and practices related munities can make it more difficult to evaluate and establish
to their use, numerous opportunities appear regarding our the sustainable extraction of NTFP. These characteristics
relationship with natural resources. This kind of knowledge are: 1) high diversity and low population density; 2) irregu-
has the potential of promoting thoughts such as: what lar flowering and fruiting events; 3) high importance and
values rule our relationship with nature? Lastly, we need to dependence on pollinators and dispersion agents; 4) high
understand that all knowledge systems are valid (not only mortality levels and low levels of recruitment in the initial
the scientific system) (Albuquerque and Andrade 2002). In- phases of the life cycle; and 5) the populations sensitivity
vestigations on NTFP can show us other ways of dealing to natural changes and disturbances (Peters 1994). The fact
with the world, including different cultures. As Estomba et is that few studies combine all of the information necessary
al. (2006) note, the use of natural resources is intimately to safely and sustainably evaluate the use of these resources.
tied to a groups culture and reflects its perceptions and The practices evaluation methods and the proposals of
beliefs. In this sense, studying this special group of resour- management alternatives must be as close as possible to the
ces elucidates specific processes, such as plant domestica- reality of the geographical area where the harvesting is hap-
tion. This strongly contributes to a better understanding of pening. The approach must consider the different extraction
the historical construction of our own society, especially re- dimensions, including the effects of the economic market.
garding its relationship with plants. Being close to the market, which includes greater ease
throughout the production cycle, is interpreted as a factor
ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF NTFP USE that increases resource extraction, worsening the damage
caused to populations and natural systems (Clement 2006).
Sustainable extraction requires planning and monitoring Uniyal et al. (2002) state that the restructuring of the medi-
(Dzerefos and Witkowski 2001). The lack of reliable infor- cinal plant market in India placed additional pressure on
mation about species, that are seen as resources, such as forests, where 90% of the plants used in the medicine indus-
their productivity and state of conservation, complicates the try are extracted from wild populations. Dzerefos and Wit-
progress of planning and management, and also complicates kowski (2001) recorded a similar situation in South Africa,
the delineation of conservation priorities, and the definition where the great demand for medicinal plants in local and
of exploration rates. In this way, scientific studies can con- regional markets unstructured traditional exploitation prac-
tribute substantially to the search for sustainable alterna- tices, which were based on greater knowledge of the re-
tives (Dzerefos and Witkowski 2001), especially in the case sources ecology. In this sense, by analyzing the indigenous
of NTFP. populations of the Brazilian Amazon, Albert (2000) argues
Sustainable extraction can be understood in the fol- that the ways of obtaining resources depend on the variety
lowing way: in ecological terms, extraction is considered of social-political options offered for its communication
sustainable if it doesn't imply any long term deleterious with the so-called involving society (in its regional, natio-
effects in the reproduction and regeneration of the popula- nal, and international branches).
tion targeted when compared to an equivalent, unexploited
population. In addition, sustainable exploitation must not METHODOLOGIES USED IN THE STUDIES OF
have adverse effects on the community's other species or on NTFP USE
the ecosystem's structure and function (Hall and Bawa
1993). It is thus necessary that the rate of exploitation is Direct evaluations
smaller than the resources regeneration rate and that the
production of any type of residues is compatible with the Peters (1994) argues that extraction impact depends on the
systems assimilation capacity. Therefore, it is necessary to type of plant or tissue explored and presents a classification
construct methods that are able of safely evaluating and that is based on the resources ecological characteristics: 1)
24

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...Functional ecosystems and communities global science books non timber forest products an overview gustavo taboada soldati ulysses paulino de albuquerque laboratorio etnobotanica aplicada departamento biologia area botanica universidade federal rural pernambuco av dom manoel medeiros s n dois irmaos cep recife pe brazil corresponding author upa db ufrpe br abstract this article will present of different approaches related to the use ntfp focusing on ecological social domain their exploitation we also discuss role ethnobotany in study these resources keywords biodiversity conservation plant extractivism population development contents introduction concepts importance implications methodologies used studies direct evaluations indirect impacts extraction cultural aspects linked final considerations acknowledgements references has become almost commonplace special attention been given a group known as paper is not intend be depth theoretical arisen due characteristics conceptual revision be...

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